Japanese Education Bibliography

Introduction

The citations which follow were found in the various online book and periodical databases supplied by the City University of New York. Book review citations and web sites are not included. Many citations which refer to presented papers from conferences and meetings were taken from the ERIC databases. In most cases, information about where these papers are available appears in these ERIC databases.

Many citations discuss comparisons with the United States and occasionally with other countries in addition to their main topic. These citations were placed with their subject area if the subject was their major emphasis, rather than in the International Comparisons chapter. Where citations cover two or more subjects they were placed with the subject where the most emphasis is. In some cases the placement of entries is somewhat arbitrary, so the decision was made to cite them in more than one chapter. In other cases the entries appear in different forms and under different names in various databases. They are sometimes shown here in all these variant forms with see references to the chosen form of entry. Japanese names which appear in the text and in the Glossary do not show vowel lengths. No markings are given.

Most of the citations cover the late twentieth century with a few published in the early twenty- first century. The last extensive English language bibliography on Japanese education was published by Ulrich Teichler and Friedrich Voss (Pullach [Isartal]: Verlag Dokumentation, 1974.). Students, teachers, and scholars should find this present compilation a useful update.

The literature on Japanese education is extensive and ongoing. Much of it concentrates on the ongoing reforms of the 1990s and their results. The citations presented here show some of the issues and problems that are being discussed and evaluated.

An unannotated Additional Sources section appears at the end of each chapter. It includes unpublished and published dissertations, theses, and other materials which may be considered ancillary.

I. Socialization and Communication
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Early child rearing, socialization, discipline, and the effects of mothering and culture on personality and communication determine behavior in schools. The preschool, with its emphasis on the group, strives to avoid conflict and to teach the distinctions between home and family versus school and society. Children are considered inherently good. They are allowed to settle their own conflicts. They play a large part in school maintenance, such as serving lunch and cleaning. Amae, or dependence, is taught and reinforced by Japanese mothers. This concept is later transferred to group loyalty. Gambare, or persistence, is a strong attribute for a successful student, as is kaizen, or self introspection. Attitudes which are shaped by societal expectations affect communication in all aspects of the educational process.

1.001 Adler, Susan Matoba. Mothering, Education and Ethnicity: The Transformation of Japanese American Culture. New York: Garland, 1998.
This book is based upon a study of the beliefs of three generations of mid Western Japanese- American women. It examines the influences of race and ethnicity on beliefs about child rearing and education. It explores how Nisei (second generation), Sansei (third generation) and Yonsei (fourth generation) women interpret Japanese cultural concepts which were brought to America by Isei (first generation) immigrants. The work ethic, educational expectations, cultural contexts and the sense of racial and ethnic identity of Japanese- American women and their families are examined. Discusses the social, political and historical contexts in which each generational group reared their children. The Japanese mother- child relationship, or amae, and its transformation in America is examined as are the Japanese concepts of gaman (to endure), and gambare (to persevere) in the context of education and schooling. The concept of "do your best" is examined from Asian and Western perspectives. Thirty five Japanese- American women, including the author, discuss how Japanese culture has been transformed across the generations.

1.002 Akimoto, Noriko. "The Use of Questionnaires To Measure Motivation In Language Learning: The Case of Japanese Learners of English." M.A. thesis. Michigan State University, 1993.
This study investigated the relationships between motivation and achievement among Japanese students learning English. It examined the role of integrative motivation.

1.003 Allison, Anne. "Japanese Mothers and Obentos: the Lunch- Box as Ideological State Apparatus." Anthropological Quarterly 64 (October 1991): 195- 208.
Discusses the cultural role of the obento, or lunch box, and its meaning to schoolchildren. The obento assumes great importance to mothers and children. All of the lunch must be eaten. Containers and foods must be in certain shapes and colors. Additional items from the natural world are included in obentos, such as maple leaves. The obento is filled with the meaning of mother and home. It must be a beautiful creative object. Shudanseikatsu, or social order and group life, is taught in the nursery school. Japanese motherhood excludes almost all other endeavors for women. It is watched and manipulated by the state. Food is considered a cultural and aesthetic apparatus in Japan. A description of how obentos represent Japanese culture is given. Obentos are no longer given when children reach first grade. Meals then become institutional. Preschool rituals and mothering are discussed. The procedures for preparing the obentos and their appearance are described extensively. Rice assumes strong cultural significance and it is present at every meal.

1.004 Altbach, Philip G., and Lionel S. Lewis. "Professorial Attitudes- An International Survey." Change 27 (November- December 1995): 50- 57.
The attitudes of Japanese professors and professors in fourteen other countries are studied. It was found that in Japan, several faculty members hold outside academic appointments. Japanese faculty members were the only ones who felt that top university administrators were providing competent leadership. They, along with Korean and British scholars, report considerable personal strain in their careers. Pressure to publish is less pronounced in Japan. In contrast to all the other countries, the majority of Japan's professors agree that top administrators are competent and supportive of academic freedom.

1.005 Angell, Ann V. "Civic Attitudes of Japanese Middle School Students: Results of a Pilot Study." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council for the Social Studies, Anaheim, Ca., 1990.
Reports on a civics attitudes questionnaire designed to study the socio- political attitudes of Japanese middle school students and psychological climates in Japanese middle schools. The relationship between schooling in middle childhood and citizenship attitudes is studied. Free expression, cynicism towards authority, and political interest and tolerance for diversity were measured. These concepts differed for Japan and the United States because of cultural factors.

1.006 Asamen, Joy K., and Gordon L. Berry. "Self- Concept, Alienation, and Perceived Prejudice: Implications For Counseling Asian Americans." Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 15 (October 1987): 146- 60.
Examines perceived prejudice, self- concept and alienation in sixty- three Japanese- American and forty- four Chinese- American college students. Showed that Japanese- Americans had a significant negative relationship between prejudice and self- concept, although there were no significant correlations for Chinese- Americans in this area. Chinese- Americans had more significant correlations between self- concept and alienation than Japanese- Americans did.

1.007 Atkinson, Donald R. "Japanese- American Acculturation, Counseling Style, Counselor Ethnicity, and Perceived Counselor Credibility." Journal of Counseling Psychology 38 (October 1991): 473- 78. see 2.121

1.008 Ban, Tsunenobu. "The Characteristic Features of Moral Socialization: A Comparison of Japanese and Australian Children." International Review of Education 41 (1995): 73- 96.
This survey, which was conducted in Japan and Australia, examines how family and school factors affect the social- moral behavior of schoolchildren, student- teacher relations, after- school friendships, and parent interaction. It was found that moral education does not necessarily translate into moral behavior. The author stresses the need for moral education. Japanese behavior is characterized by a "particularism- situationism". It may also be characterized as "situational morality" where behavior depends upon the particular situation at hand, rather than on an absolute morality. Moral education must be based upon the real- life experiences of children.

1.009 Baris- Sanders, Marcia. "Cooperative Education: Lessons From Japan." Phi Delta Kappan 78 (April 1997): 619- 23.
In Japan students stay together in the same class while teachers move from class to class. There is a buddy system where children help each other in the small teaching groups

II. Cultural Influences
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The concepts of kaizen, or continuous self- inspection, gambare, or persistence and perseverence, and group cooperation, dominate the philosophy of Japanese students from the elementary grades through college. In spite of many strides that have been made, bias still exists against women in higher education and in the workplace. Women's roles in society are seen primarily as mothers (kyoiku mamas) and wives. Moral education is connected to academic education. Teachers are expected to be involved in the after school life of their students. Self- loyalty and self- development must be connected to group loyalty.

2.001 Allison, Anne. Permitted and Prohibited Desires: Mothers, Comics, and Censorship in Japan. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press, 2000.
Analyzes the culture of sex, sexuality, power and gender in Japan and how it compares with that of Western cultures. Topics include place and sex in anthropology, feminism and cultural studies, Japanese mothers and obentos (the ritual surrounding school lunches), mother- son incest, obscenity and obscenity laws, sexual images in cartoons and comic books, pornography, school, state, and subjectivity. Discusses Japanese popular culture, sexuality and society, and the treatment of women.

2.002 Amaha, Eriko. "Blazing a Trail." Far Eastern Economic Review 162 July 1,1999): 34- 36.
Legislation introduced in Japan in May, 1999 stipulated for the first time that women have equal rights in the workplace, at home, and in the society. Although they are among the most highly educated in the world, Japan's women have been forced to play second class roles because of Japan's social norms. Government can now step into labor disputes without the permission of the employer. In addition, the new legislation addresses the problem of sexual harassment and will reinforce it with public humiliation. Japanese women are now joining the political process in unprecedented numbers.

2.003 Amano, Masako. "Women in Higher Education." Higher Education 34 (September 1997): 215- 35.
States that the 1980s marked a milestone in the history of women's higher education in Japan. Classifies the social function of higher education into four categories, 1. research function, 2. general education function, 3. professional education, and 4. enlightenment function. Within this context Japanese higher education has only served the two functions of general and professional education. General education for women reflected the gender roles assigned to women. The scope of professional education for women was severely limited. Female students continue to concentrate on particular courses of study. Very few females studies natural sciences or engineering. Discusses the difficulties faced by women's colleges and junior colleges. Women whose families were of higher social status tended to pursue higher education more and entered so- called "men's professions" more. After the 1980s women began to graduate from four- year institutions at a higher rate. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act was influential in raising the employment status of women. "Comprehensive track" jobs for women implied equal treatment as men. "General track" women were assigned to support jobs without rotation. Although women are entering higher education in larger numbers the 'gender track' continues in Japan, with women preferring the junior colleges and specific courses of study. Employers are still restrictive in their attitudes towards women. Courses in women's studies are beginning. The author summarizes the past legislation of the 1908s and gives projections for the future of Japan's women in the educational system.

2.004 American Japanese Culture Clash. (1992), videorecording.
As part of the MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour, this videocassette represents the three part series on Japan/U.S. relations as presented by business correspondent Paul Solman. It examines American stereotypes of the Japanese and Japanese misconceptions about Americans. Shows that Japanese and American workers are colliding on the job.

2.005 Aoki, Junko. "Effects of the Culture Assimilator on Cross- Cultural Understanding and Attitudes of College Students." Ph.D. dissertation. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1991.
This study investigates the Japanese Culture Assimilator as a teaching technique used for cross- cultural education, specifically learning about the attitudes of American college students. The results indicated that there were no positive effects on cross- cultural sensitivity or attitudes towards Japanese culture. However, reading the culture assimilator resulted in more cross- cultural understanding. The culture assimilator appeared to be a promising tool for cross- cultural education.

2.006 Arai, Jin. "Religious Education in Christ- With- Culture >From A Japanese Perspective." Religious Education 91 (Spring 1996): 222- 37.
Religious pluralism is a significant issue of religious education. Asian and American attitudes towards Christian and non- Christian religions differ. Describes the Christ- With- Culture theological base and its implications for religious education in Japan. Japanese Christians often find it difficult to integrate their religious experience because Christianity is closer to Western cultures. The Christ- With- Culture position affirms multiple revelations of God and allows for Buddhist and Shinto traditions in the Christian worship service. Shinto avoids impurity from death while the Western Christian resurrection overcame the power of death and thereby do not view death as impurity. Christ- With- Culture presupposes radical monotheism or the principle of being itself as opposed to henotheism in which God is society itself. Discusses the philosophy of Christ- With- Culture and how Japanese Christians celebrate the calendar church year. Many churches try to clarify the relationship between the Christian and Japanese calendar year. Rice cakes and rice wine are used instead of bread and grape juice for the communion. The author feels that religious multilingualism will help build bridges between people from different religious backgrounds the same way that bilingualism bridges the gap between languages. Japanese communion vessels are wooden. There are differences in people's understanding of religious terms in different religious languages.

2.007 Arimoto, Akira. "Market and Higher Education in Japan." Higher Education Policy 10 (September- December 1997): 199- 210.
Discusses the role of the occupational sector in higher educational institutions in Japan, particularly private ones, and the government's role in financing Japanese higher education. Also discusses the educational reform efforts in the financial context from a pedagogical and administrative view. A question which is raised is whether the Japanese higher educational system is sufficiently competent and useful for international competition in overseas markets. The Japanese private university sector is much larger than the public university sector. This means that the movement towards a market- oriented society has been established more quickly in Japan than in other countries. This fact is likely to be identified as one of the special characteristics of the higher educational system in Japan. Universities in the national sector are successful in attracting more able students for the purpose of training essential national manpower. Discusses the national government's responsibility for budget and administration at the institutional level, regulation at the administration and management level, reforms of academic institutions, and organizations and their functions from the perspective of the market principle. Characteristics of Japan's higher education system are the coexistence of closeness and openness, and rigidity and flexibility. In the balance of power between control and market, the former was historically dominant but the latter has recently become dominant. Massification and quantitative development of higher education has reached the stage where it is able to be connected to a lifelong learning society.

2.008 Arimoto, Masahiro. "Japanese Educational System Improving Ongoing Practice in Schools." School Effectiveness and School Improvement 6 (December 1995): 380- 88.
Describes the unique characteristics of the Japanese education system such as the prescribed curriculum, and the fact that pupils are largely confined to their desks. The system is characterized by hardworking committed teachers and students. The effectiveness of the school system is attributed to concepts deeply rooted in Japanese culture which stem from Buddhism and Confucianism.

2.009 Aspinall, Robert W. Teachers' Unions and the Politics of Education in Japan. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001.
Traces the history of Japanese teachers unions and states that in 1989, the Japan Teachers' Union, Nikkyhoso, split into two unions. Japan has two political camps, the conservative Liberal Democratic Party and the left- wing Japan Socialist Party. The teachers union is theoretically part of the latter group. This book examines all the interactions between the teachers union and the total political system in the country. Data was taken from journals and other publications. Interviews of bureaucrats, union members and teachers were used. Also includes the debate on educational reform and compares the Japanese teachers union to other such unions around the world.

2.010 Azuma, Hiroshi. "Japanese Collectivism and Education." Global Prospects for Education: Development, Culture, and Schooling. Edited by Scott G. Paris, et al. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1998.
Azuma takes a holistic cultural view of the findings of superior mathematical performance of Asian, and particularly Japanese students. He attributes this superiority to the concept of "Japanese collectivism." This concept includes communal, societal, deep- seated family support for the school system, community spirit in the classroom, and an emphasis on interpersonal relations rather than individual expression. Some negative aspects of these concepts are "examination hell" and bullying.
2.011 Baker, David P., et al. "The Effects of Sex- Grouped Schooling on Achievement: The Role of National Context." Comparative Education Review 39 (November 1995): 468- 82.
This study examined the role of national context when comparing the effects of sex groupings on twelfth grade mathematics achievement in Belgium, Japan, New Zealand and Thailand. The latter countries have both single and mixed- sex schooling. It was found that achievement was influenced by national context related to sex groupings. Thailand's single sex schools showed greater achievement but Japan's yielded lower achievement. No differences in achievement levels were found in Belgium or New Zealand. Concludes that sex groupings influence academic achievement through factors related to the relative rarity of one- sex grouping. Where single- sex schools enhance achievement it may be a function of factors related to less- centralized control of learning environments and to students choosing special schools.

2.012 Ban, Tsunenobu. "The Characteristic Features of Moral Socialization: A Comparison of Japanese and Australian Children." International Review of Education 41 (1995): 73- 96. see 1.008

2.013 _____________, and William K. Cummings. "Moral Orientations of Schoolchildren in the United States and Japan." Comparative Education Review 43 (February 1999): 64- 85.
Perhaps the firsts quantitative study to consider the link between contextual factors and moral orientations in Japan. Respect and responsibility are the core dimensions of morality. In recent years there has been a revival of interest in moral education in Japan and the United States. There has been concern about moral decline in Japan. More attention has been paid to moral education in the Japanese educational curriculum. Compares Japanese and American approaches to the moral education of students by sampling students from Osaka and Tokushima, Japan and Buffalo, New York.

III. International Comparisons
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Much of the literature compares Japanese educational practices with those of other countries, especially the United States. The influence of the American Occupation after World War II is especially significant for the development of trends toward Westernization. Sources which concentrate solely on one country also tend to give some comparisons with other countries. Many of these comparisons discuss cultural differences regarding schooling and child rearing and their influence on the educational process. Recent efforts at internationalization have promoted foreign exchange students. Branch campuses of Japanese universities were constructed in the United States and elsewhere. Readjustment problems of returning students at all educational levels are discussed.

3.001 Acquisition of Reading Skills: Cultural Constraints and Cognitive Universals. Edited by Barbara R. Foorman and Alexander W. Siegel. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum, 1986.
Notes that children learn sound- symbol relationships of their languages. Discusses the differences between orthographies, sound- symbol relationships and attitudes towards literacy. These essays explore the cultural aspects involved in learning to read.

3.002 Archwamety, Teara. "Perception of the Impact of International Education: Japanese vs. American Students." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, 1996.
Studies Japanese and American exchange students with a goal to understanding the perceived impact of international education on the home and the host societies. Japanese returning students viewed the impact of their return to their home country as being more beneficial than American returning students. However, American students viewed foreign exchange students as more beneficial to America than Japanese students viewed foreign exchange students to Japan. Students in both countries felt that international education had a positive impact.

3.003 Ahearn, Eileen M., and Jacqueline Patterson. "Japanese and American Special Education: A World Apart." International Journal of Special Education 1 (1986): 129- 40.
Compares historical and contemporary special education in Japan and the United States with regard to the cultural differences affecting societal acceptance of the handicapped, integration into regular education, finance, parental and government involvement, and staff training.

3.004 Amemiya, Keiko. "Meet the Culture Assistants." Look Japan 41 (June 1995): 28- 30.
Describes the Japanese Language and Culture Assistants Program. This program sent approximately one hundred Japanese volunteers to the United States where they taught Japanese language and culture in American schools. Specific activities of four volunteers are discussed and the program is evaluated.

3.005 Andrejevic, Mark. "Japanese Added to the 3 'R's." Detroit News & Free Press (February 10, 1991): CM, 3,2.
Discusses Anchor Bay Elementary School in Michigan, one of a rapidly growing number of public schools that teach Japanese. As part of only a handful of such schools in Michigan, its hope is to prepare students to compete in the global economy.

3.006 Arita, Ariko. "English Education at Early Age Gains Momentum." Japan Times (July 19, 2002), Available: Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
Discusses the new trend towards teaching English in Japanese schools. This teaching is geared more towards listening and speaking rather than grammar and writing. English classes are taught at the preschool and primary levels as well as at the secondary level, spanning over eight years at the elementary level. English is also studied while research is being done on other topics. Approximately 5583 people came to Japan to teach under the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program in 2001. Critics of the program fear that many of the native teachers are not proficient enough in the subject to teach it and that it should not be mixed with learning other subjects or with studying internationalization. Many expect that English will become a compulsory subject in Japanese schools according to a report compiled by the Education Ministry.

3.007 __________."Japan Experiments With Super English Schools." Japan Times (July 20, 2002), Available: Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
States that the use of the English language is becoming more prevalent in Japan. School notices are in English when they are broadcast. The Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Ministry named eighteen Super English Language High Schools ( SELHI) in April of 2002 which are to develop effective English teaching methods and curricula autonomously from the Ministry. Science and mathematics are to be taught in English, using the Internet and collaborating with schools abroad. Students will write essays in English and submit them to teachers from an English speaking country. Japanese teachers will be trained in how to effectively teach English and will participate in the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program. Intensive training programs were to be undertaken for all 60,000 English teachers at junior high and high schools nationwide from 2003. Additional foreign teachers will be hired as well as assistant language teachers. Students will be trained to develop competency in taking examinations in English and also in developing competency in their native Japanese language.

3.008 Arthur, Herman. "The Japan Gap." American Educator 7 (Summer 1983): 38- 44.
America's educational problems are compared with Japan's educational success and high literacy rate. The author feels that this success is related to cultural homogeneity, school discipline and students' strong motivation. He notes the great differences between the two societies and feels that in spite of them some of Japan's educational strategies can be adopted in the United States. Japanese schools offer more science, music, art and physical education than American schools. Work itself is a source of gratification. There are 100 newspapers in the city of Tokyo alone. Japan is a highly literate country. Japanese workers rarely change jobs or move. Japanese preschoolers are unrestricted. They become restricted when they go to high school. The reverse of true of Americans. Many American exhibit devotion to sports which is comparable to the Japanese devotion to study.

3.009 The Asian American Educational Experience: A Source Book for Teachers and Students. N.Y.: Routledge, 1995.
Discusses the education of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders and documents the body of research which analyzes and makes recommendations on these ethnic groups. Includes historical perspectives on schooling and achievement both at the elementary and secondary levels. These ethnicities are hetergeneous, contrary to some popular beliefs. Includes an extensive bibliography.

3.010 Atagi, Rie. "Japan's Internationalization Policy in Education." Ed.D. dissertation. University of Michigan, 1996.
Discusses the major projects and programs which were part of the intended internationalization process in Japanese education. Some of these programs are Education for International Understanding, Foreign Language Education, International Student Exchange, and Education for Japanese Expatriated and Repatriated Children. Speculates on future trends. Defines Japan's three primary objectives regarding the internationalization process which are: developing human resource skills necessary for international contacts, developing a Japanese identity, and international contributions. Drawbacks to this international process is Japan's unwillingness to improve education for foreign children in the country and other sources of continuing cultural friction.

3.011 The Attic Letters: Ume Tsuda's Correspondence to Her American Mother. New York: Weatherhill, 1992.
Tsuda was one of the first girls to be sent to the United States to be educated during Japan's Meiji period. After eleven years she returned to Japan where she found the atmosphere very repressive. She again returned to the United States to attend Bryn Mawr College and eventually founded Tsuda College in Japan for the education of women. These letters span the years from 1882 to 1911. They shed light on Japan from a bi- cultural perspective.

3.012 "Azeri Students to Study in Japan." Global News Wire (April 4, 2002),Available: Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
The Japanese government has granted scholarships to students in Azerbaijan who are graduates of universities and who will come to Japan to study the Japanese language and other courses for approximately one year and a half.

3.013 Baker, Lary. "Japanese Schools Are No Model For U.S." St. Louis Post Dispatch (January 10, 1998): 34:4.
The author states that most of the so- called benefits to be derived from the Japanese model of education would be very difficult to achieve or are of little value in the United States. The national system that Japanese teachers work for sets broad curriculum goals and guidelines which enable teachers to exercise broad freedoms and be innovative and creative in curriculum design and instruction. He calls this "top- down lock- step approach" a problem and states that it is coming under significant criticism in Japan. Japan must remove barriers to creative expression and initiative.
Americans value individualism, diversity, non- conformity, and personal and social development which would be a problem in the present Japanese educational system.

3.014 Barnard, Nicolas, "Japanese Resist Setting for Sums." Times Educational Supplement 4323 (May 7, 1999): 6. see 4.009

3.015 Barrett, Todd. "Coming To America: Growing Pains At Multinational Teikyo U." Newsweek 118 (August 5, 1991): 43.
Japan's s Teikyo University merged with five American colleges and sent hundreds of Japanese students to boost their enrollments. Discusses the Teikyo University campuses in the United States. They have provided their founder with income and growing administrative and social considerations. Social isolationism and language barriers have become problems. Japanese and American students are sometimes mistrustful of each other. Three college presidents have resigned. Management cultures have clashed. The numbers of Japanese versus American students varies from campus to campus. Many Japanese people admire education in the United States and want their students to experience an American education. This university is one of a growing number in the United States designed to introduce Japanese students to American university education.

3.016 Bartell, Carol A., and David B. Willis. "American and Japanese Principals: A Comparative Analysis of Excellence in Instructional Leadership." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C., 1987.
This study intended to present characteristics of excellent secondary principals in Japan and America. It was guided by ethnographic methods, instructional leadership concepts and dominant cultural themes. Peers were questioned and relations with teachers was a key factor in the evaluation. Japanese principals are more visible in the classrooms and surrounding areas than American principals but they rely on teachers as intermediaries.

3.017_ _______. "American and Japanese Principals: A Comparative Analysis of Instructional Leadership." NASSP Bulletin 71 (November 1987): 18- 27.
Outlines career goals of Japanese and American principals as well as values, roles, responsibilities and leadership qualities. Presents similarities and differences.

3.018 "Battle Creek, Sister City Plan School Ties." Detroit News (January 16, 1992): B,4:4.
Reports that Battle Creek, Michigan and Takasaki, Japan became sister cities in 1981. They have two cooperative high schools, Battle Creek Central High and Takasaki Municipal Girls' Senior High School.

3.019 Baum, Julian. "A Friend Indeed." Far Eastern Economic Review 161 (November 26, 1998): 26- 28.
Discusses the involvement of the conservative Japanese newspaper Sankei Shimbun and its journalists in China. This led the way for other Japanese media to go to China and Taiwan and for large Japanese news organizations to set up offices in Beijing and Taipei. These Japanese news organizations covered Taiwan's elections. Discusses the history of Japanese- Taiwanese relations and speculates on the importance of the friendship between Japan and Taiwan for economic reasons and for a greater understanding of mainland China. An affinity for things Japanese remains strong in Taiwan unlike the animosity that exists with mainland China.

3.020 Beauchamp, Edward R. Japanese and U.S. Education Compared. Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1992.
Compares Japanese and American education and culture and states that Japanese culture is uniform while American culture is diverse. Japan's education is centralized and America's is decentralized. Education is compulsory in both countries. There is less student employment in Japan, a longer school year, and a more rigorous government controlled curriculum. Japanese teachers receive more respect and more salary. Ability is emphasized in America. In Japan, effort and persistence are emphasized more. The author contends that America needs to respect education more by having higher educational standards and allocating more money to educational endeavors.

3.021 _____________. "What Can We Learn From Japan." Educational Horizons 69 (Summer 1991): 179- 81.
Discusses the basic differences between the American and Japanese educational systems and their cultural influences. The Japanese schools are largely a product of the group- oriented society with principles of harmony and order based upon Confucianism. It is a highly centralized system, with a subject oriented curriculum and teacher- centered classrooms. In contrast, the American system tends towards decentralization, a fragmented curriculum and individuality. A problem with the American system is the lack of involvement of parents in their children's schoolwork. Japanese teachers are highly paid and respected and schools are revered. While cultural differences prevent the adoption of many Japanese educational ideas, America can cultivate a more positive attitude towards education.

3.022 Bell, R. Public School Education of Second- Generation Japanese in California. Stanford, Ca: Stanford University Press, 1979.
Describes the educational experiences of first generation Japanese children in America. In spite of their problems with an incomplete mastery of English, these children perform as well as, and often better than American children. It was found that there was "little quantitative difference in intelligence levels" between the Japanese and American children."

3.023 Benjamin, Gail. Japanese Lessons: A Year in a Japanese School Through the Eyes of an American Anthropologist and Her Children. New York: New York University Press, 1997.
The author has observed some distinctly cultural aspects of Japanese education and society. Schools are more devoted to moral and morality teaching. The concept of "hansei," which is continuous self evaluation, is ever present. Students spend more time with teachers. Japanese family life is more stable than American family life. Physical contact among family members is more pronounced. Although Japanese classes have large numbers of students, the school is a powerful socialization tool. American conceptions of personality and development focus on innate differences among people. The Japanese believe that experience, rather than innate differences, accounts for human diversity. Peer influence is strong in Japan. The "han" or school working groups, are often involved in non- academic as well as academic activities. Japanese mother- child bonds are very strong. Homework is ever- present in childrens' lives, even during their vacations. The author gives detailed descriptions of Japanese reading and mathematics lessons, textbooks, and teaching methods.

3.024 Bennett, William J. "Looking at Japanese Education: Implications for American Education." NASSP Bulletin 71 (May 1987): 102- 8.
Presents the epilogue to the 1987 United States Department of Education's report which was a study of Japanese education written by Secretary of Education William Bennett. In this report, Secretary Bennett outlines twelve principles which he felt could be adapted from the Japanese educational system to the American educational system.

3.025 Bereday, George Z.F., and Shigeo Masui. American Education Through Japanese Eyes. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1973.
Topics discussed include centralized versus decentralized school administrations, development of the 'whole man,' moral education and its relationship to the family, church and community and curriculum and teaching. States that the school is partly responsible for bringing about needed flexibility in Japan's political sphere. The American educational system was observed by teachers from Japan. National bias, and the effectiveness of international exchanges were taken into consideration. Japanese teachers looked favorably upon regional cooperating organizations. Their other comments about centralization are discussed along with their feelings about American and Japanese moral education. The role of guidance and the home room and how the philosophy of discipline is different in America and Japan are also discussed. The role of the family, the influences of religion and religious education and the community on moral upbringing, discipline and the relationship between school and society are compared for both countries. The role of Japanese teachers extends more into the home and family than with American teachers. The curriculum, the heritage of progressivism, and individualism in the curriculum are criticized. Japanese teachers were critical of specific details in the curriculum rather than its general outline, and their review of their observations of several subjects being taught was on the whole negative. On the whole, the Japanese teachers expressed a distaste for ability grouping. Reforms are discussed for both countries. American teachers criticized Japanese teachers' disciplinary methods while Japanese teachers felt that the status of American teachers was not good. Student- teacher relations in Japan were at a higher level. In- service training of teachers in the United States was considered more unstructured and individualized and this appealed to Japanese teachers. This confrontation between classroom teachers of two countries has been hampered by a lack of the understanding of the Japanese language in evaluating written materials. Laziness, deviance, apathy of the public, and moral nonperformance of students created the most disappointment in the Japanese visitors. Nationalism and homogeneity must be taken into consideration when views are expressed from each country. Appendices include documentation about previous Japanese- American teacher exchanges.

3.026 Beshoar, Daniel F. "Healthy Elements of Japanese Education." Educational Forum 59 (Spring 1995): 250- 57.
The healthy elements of Japanese education are group harmony, a holistic perspective, integration of normative influences and perseverance with a long- view perspective. In order to imitate these similar elements in American schools, the United States should have recess every hour in the elementary school, include values education with health education, use more cooperative and group learning, have longer school days with more activities, integrate school and family and have behavior learning as well as knowledge learning. Japanese education reflects her culture. The educational system is conducive to the promotion of well- being. Primary education promotes cooperation over competition. Secondary education creates more stress and is less conducive to good health. The article focuses on primary education. Group harmony counteracts loneliness. Once in college and throughout adult life, the Japanese people concentrate on group rather than individual achievement. Emphasis on the "whole person" develops well- being. The curriculum which includes art, music, foreign languages, physical education, moral education, and guidance, especially in the early grades, promotes healthful and safe behavior. Activities are integrated between home and school, and mental and physical life. Japan emphasizes a process orientation, rather than product- oriented America. Unlike Japan, praise for effort does not take precedence over outcome in America. The healthy elements of Japanese primary education help Japanese teenagers cope better with the stresses of secondary education.

3.027 Best, Don. Make a Mil- Yen: Teaching English in Japan. Berkeley, Ca.: Stone Bridge Press, 1994.
Provides some practical guidance for foreign persons contemplating teaching English in Japan. Discusses the qualifications and experiences that Japanese schools are looking for, salaries, and hints about Japanese lifestyles. Provides names and phone numbers of many schools and resources.

3.028 Between Understanding and Misunderstanding: Problems and Prospects for International Cultural Exchange. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
This collection of papers presented at the International Cultural Exchange Symposium examines international cultural exchange for its conceptual, methodological and administrative problems. Methods of improving effectiveness and costs of international exchange programs are suggested. In addition to the primary focus of American- Japanese exchange, the concepts introduced here may be applied to general cultural relations among other countries.

3.029 Boothe, Randy Diane. "Educational Reforms and Accountability Standards in Japanese and California Middle Schools." DPA dissertation, University of Southern California, 1991.
Compares and contrasts Californian and Japanese middle schools using interviews and other data. Considers accountability of administrators, teaching effectiveness, parent involvement, reforms and other variables. Findings indicate that Japanese administrators do not have the multiple constituencies to please that American administrators do. Teachers and students in Japan are more responsible for student performance, while in California labor and management negotiations are more accountable for the overall success of schools. The author concludes that the school systems in both countries systems have strengths and weaknesses which cannot be transferred from one country to another.

3.030 Bounds, Amy. "Fulbright Fund Lets Teachers Get Cultural Education in Japan." Denver Post (February 28, 1997): B,2.
Discusses the Fulbright program, which will allow Colorado elementary and high school teachers to take a fully funded study tour of Japan over the next five years. Approximately 502 teachers made the trip. Visiting teachers were to see cultural sights in Tokyo and tour schools while living with Japanese families. This Fulbright Memorial Fund Teacher Program was created in Japan in honor of the fiftieth anniversary of Fulbright Fellowships. It is hoped that the number of Americans studying in Japan will increase because it is far below the number of Japanese studying in America.

3.031 Boyle, Michael J. "An Investigation of the Cognitive and Affective Differences in Japanese and American Mathematically Talented Students." Ph.D. dissertation. Loyola University of Chicago, 1992. see 2.027

3.032 Bracey, Gerald W. "Asian and American Schools Again." Phi Delta Kappan 77 (May 1996): 641- 42. see 4.025

3.033 ____________. "Culture and Learning Strategies." Phi Delta Kappan 78 (May 1997): 726. see 2.029

3.034 ____________. "Problem Solving, East and West: Mathematics Teaching in the U.S. and Japan: Research by Richard Mayers, Valerie Sims and Hidetsuga Tajika." Phi Delta Kappan 77 (November 1995): 258. see 4.029

3.035 ____________. When Will We Ever Learn." NASSP Bulletin 81 (May 1997): 115- 20.
Discusses some criticisms of the Japanese educational system such as the use of corporal punishment. Although it is illegal corporal punishment is common in Japanese public schools and strongly supported by parents. States that the juku or cram schools are the real reason for the success of the Japanese educational system. Emphasizes that Japanese schools reflect the country's culture and would be unsuited to American culture. Japanese lectures deliver information and may not stimulate thinking. American children are treated in a more benign and easy going manner than children of some other nations. Reading is emphasized more in American schools than mathematics is. American children score very high on international reading tests.

3.036 Brender, Alan. "Japan Will Allow Universities to Grant Credit for Online Courses." Chronicle of Higher Education 47 (April 13, 2001): A,48.
Describes Japan's procedures regarding online education. The Education Ministry approves credit to be given for online courses and also for courses taken at foreign universities. Japan's students may not be that eager to acclimate themselves to the English language ins pite of the fact that some experts predicted a flood of new students to American online courses. It also stipulates that faculty conducting online courses must submit to student evaluations via e- mail. Japanese professors are not accustomed to having one- on- one discussions with their students.

3.037 Brenner, Debra F. "HAI! American Visits Schools in Japan." Perspectives in Education and Deafness 16 (January/February 1998): 16- 17, 19.
An American teacher of deaf and hard of hearing teenagers describes her visit to schools in Japan. She observed a Japanese school for the deaf which utilized Japanese sign language.

3.038 Breslin, Catherine. "Tokyo Prep." New York 22 (March 6, 1989): 50- 52.
Discusses the Queens, N.Y. based Japanese Weekend School for about four thousand expatriate Japanese children. These schools in the U.S. mimic the Japanese juku and are designed to keep Japanese children at an even pace with their counterparts in Japan.

3.039 Brookhart, Gerald M. "Comparative Analysis of the School to Work Transition in Japan, Germany, and the United States With Implications for Educational Policy." Ed.D. dissertation. Northern Illinois University, 1996.
A literature search was used to compare the transition from school to work in the above countries. Suggestions are offered about implications of the results of the above studies for school to work transitions in the United States. The research discussed Japan's history, culture and public policy. The typical career route for an entry- level laborer, clerk, and baccalaureate engineer is discussed for each of the above countries. The strengths and weaknesses of each country are also described. Exemplary benchmark practices were identified in Germany and Japan. It is felt that there would be major impediments to adopting these practices in the United States. The study led to the emergence of three themes, 1. human resource development as technology, 2. quality of life for workers, and 3. discrimination against women and minorities. Recommendations for improving many situations included universal health care, developmental early childhood education, a common- core curriculum, industrial training and retraining, and the establishment of a national Youth Public Service Corps.

3.040 Brooks, Bennett, and Kim Fararo. "U.S. Colleges Show New Interest In Japan: Many Consider Offering Formal Programs." Chronicle of Higher Education 33 (January 14, 1987): 43,46.
Describes a plan supported by American and Japanese legislators which would provide free or inexpensive land and other financial incentives to encourage American educational institutions to set up major academic programs in Japan. The plan envisioned establishing four- year branch campuses which would enroll students from the United States, Japan and other Pacific nations.

3.041 Caesar, Terry B. "An Ocean of Difference in Academic Conferences." Chronicle of Higher Education 46 (October 1, 1999): B,8.
States that nations shape academic disciplines according to their social and cultural backgrounds. Describes the author's different experiences when he attended conferences in the United States and Japan. The conferences attended were those of the Modern Language Association in the United States and the English Literary Society in Japan. The author noted that the conference was an expression of Japanese national identity. Japanese papers were less tentative and less subject to fashion than American papers were. There were fewer presenters at the Japanese conference. The group ethos is also prevalent in Japanese conferences. Presenters and attendees do not wear any badges. The author felt that the Japanese approach was to discuss knowledge rather than showcase it, the latter which was indicative of the American approach. The Japanese wore no badges indicative of the educational institution that they came from. This may be due to the cohesiveness of the Japanese university group as opposed to the internal differences and competitive nature of American academics.

3.042 Chambers, Gail S., and William K. Cummings. Profiting From Education: Japan- United States International Educational Ventures in the 1980s. New York: Institute of International Education, 1990.
The Institute of International Education is concerned with the forces behind the wave of international cooperation in higher education through a systematic focus on the United States and Japan. Institutions studied are Japanese colleges in the United States and American colleges in Japan, each offering courses to be credited in their own countries. Differences in beliefs, problems, performance evaluations and accreditation problems are also discussed.

3.043 Chira, Susan. "School Managers Build Bridges From Japan to U.S." New York Times (May 2, 1990): B,7.
Discusses Salem- Teikyo University in Salem West Virginia, which operated under the first full- fledged merger of an American and Japanese college. Its total enrollment was five hundred. Its Japanese students had schedules to accommodate them so that they could travel back and forth to Japan. The interaction between Japanese and American students is described. The relative isolation in Salem, West Virginia posed a problem for students without automobiles. It is felt that this will be a broadening experience for both cultures.

3.044 Choi, Hyaeweol. "Asian Scholars in the United States: Careers, Roles and Contributions to the International Knowledge System." Ph.D. dissertation. State University of New York at Buffalo, 1993.
Studies the careers, roles and contributions of Asian- born scholars in academic institutions in the United States and their contributions to international knowledge. In- depth interviews were conducted. Scholars represented China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan in three major research universities in New York State. Asian scholars in the United States view themselves primarily as researchers rather than scholars. Their relationships to their own countries is one of supply and demand. They are playing a significant part in both science and engineering and in the humanities in broadening cultural and academic perspectives.

3.045 "City U.'s Newest Campus is in Japan." New York Times (May 2, 1990): B,7.
A thirty seven acre campus of the City University of New York which was administered by Lehman College and located in Chiyoda, Japan, was built and financed by Japanese investors to serve Japanese students. Temple University , the University of Nevada, Southern Illinois University, and Minnesota State University are other American colleges which established branch campuses in Japan. Lehman College has a wealth of experience in English as a second language teaching. This American- style college in Japan will emphasize flexibility, creativity and problem- solving and offer Lehman's students extraordinary opportunities to study abroad. All classes will be in English and will consist of a core curriculum. After two- years students are free to transfer anywhere to complete their studies. Japanese students who were excluded from the Japanese university system may have another opportunity to study here. Fifty percent of high school graduates in the United States attend college as opposed to 30 percent in Japan.

3.046 Clayton, Thomas. "Japan- U.S. Joint Ventures in Higher Education: Language Education in an Uncertain Future." Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 2 (1991): 175- 84.
Examines U. S. style education programs in Japan which are of interest to those who failed in the Japanese educational system. These programs offer culture and language education and their problems and future potential are considered.
3.047 Cogan, John J. "Should the U.S. Mimic Japanese Education? Let's Look Before We Leap." Phi Delta Kappan 65 (March 1984): 463- 68.
Japanese breakthroughs in computer technology have called American education into question. The standardized 6- 3- 3 system which grew out of the School Education Law of 1947 boasts equality of educational opportunity for the homogeneous and mono- cultural people. The Japanese curriculum, textbooks and examinations are all standardized. The Japanese people are highly interested in and supportive of education. The children spend large amounts of time in school. Japanese teachers enjoy security and respect. Japanese teachers have tenure and lifetime employment when they begin their assignments. The educational system strives to develop the "whole person" morally, educationally and physically. Japanese students are disciplined. Even the youngest of them persevere at tasks for long periods of time. Japanese students have long- term goals. The author feels that education is culture bound and lists the strengths and weaknesses of Japanese education and discusses what about it the United States can and should emulate. Some weaknesses of the system are the examinations, school violence, financial burdens for less well- off families who must foot the bill for the cram schools. Students will be stereotyped and judged by the schools they attended for the rest of their lives. Most Japanese college students end their education with the baccalaureate degree. Only five percent go on to graduate schools. Tradition and bureaucracy remain firmly entrenched in Japan but many are striving for more creativity in education. America would do well to demand better academic performance from students and to give teachers more prestige. America should avoid "examination hell," standardized national syllabi, a national system for textbook selection, gender inequality and rote learning.

3.048 Cohen, David. "Magazine's Rankings of Asian Universities Are Popular With Readers, Not Academics." Chronicle of Higher Education 45 (May 14, 1999): A,51- A53.
Competition for financial assistance contributes to the proliferation of university rankings. Magazines in which rankings appear outsell most of their counterparts. Discusses the nature and philosophy of the rankings of Asian universities in magazines. The University of Tokyo was ranked as number one. The University of Singapore was also highly ranked by some surveys. Mainland China's universities have fallen short. The article discusses the difficulties with some of the surveys, such as the vastness of the geography which spanned across eighteen countries and also to Australia and New Zealand. The institutions which were compared were very similar in nature. The selectivity criteria also presented a problem. It is hoped that the continued use of rankings will help to make and keep Asian universities world class.

3.049 Cohn, Lynne Meredith. "Dearborn Teacher Shares View of World: Salina Educator Studies Japan With 2nd Fulbright." Detroit News (January 11, 1999): D,3.
Discusses the experiences of a teacher who was one of two hundred Americans spending three weeks in Japan at the invitation of the Japanese government. This experience was part of the Fulbright exchange program. The teachers traveled in groups of twenty. This teacher, who relates her experiences, says she was intrigued by the no- testing mandate in primary schools. She was also impressed by children functioning as custodians, maintaining the school grounds and serving lunch, etc. Reforms which were to take place by 2003 are discussed. They included a reduction from a five- day week and a "looser curriculum." The arts are not neglected, even in Japanese primary schools. Self- discipline is the focus, so teachers do not, in theory, discipline children.

3.050 Conduit, Anne, and Andy Conduit. Educating Andy. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1996.
Describes the experiences of a father and son regarding what is learned in school and what is required in the corporation during the years 1991- 1994. An American mother and her son relate their experiences with the Japanese school system where ritual, form, duty, group activities and social hierarchy or senpai- kohai play a large part. Children sometimes hesitate to communicate with adults. Vacations and after school activities are discussed. Japanese teachers do not interfere in children's disputes. There is a strong sense of gender in Japanese society. Women usually defer to men. Things are characterized as the same or different or in- group or out- of- group (uchi or soto). People who are out of the group experience difficulties because the group bears the burden for anyone who deviates from it. Lack of tracking in the elementary schools, which is part of the group philosophy, leads to problems with children who are ahead of or behind the group and must stay within it. Speculates on reforms, especially in higher education, internationalization, and the need to reduce school pressures which lead to problems such as teenage suicide.

3.051 Connor- Linton, Jeff. "Crosscultural Comparison of Writing Standards: American ESL and Japanese EFL." World Englishes 14 (March 1995): 99- 115.
Compared the evaluative criteria used by American English as a Second Language (ESL) instructors and Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructors when they rated compositions written by Japanese EFL adult students. The results were that Japanese EFL teachers stressed accuracy and American ESL teachers stressed intersentential features of the discourse and specific intrasentential grammatical features.

3.052 Conyers, John G. "Are Japanese Methods an Import We Want?" School Administrator 48 (August 1991): 22- 25.
A suburban Illinois elementary school district developed a bilingual English Language Acceleration Program to help Japanese students adjust to American schooling. One of the goals of the program was to help students to adjust to American culture. Japanese parents had very high expectations and gave their children a great deal of support.

3.053 Cooney, Thomas J. "What Can We Learn From Comparing the Performance of Asian and North American Students?" Mathematics Education Dialogues 5 (November 2001): p.1- 4.
This news bulletin insert is duplicated at nctm.org/dialogues where the full text of these dialogues is given. This insert summarizes the contents of these online documents with brief information about their authors. America admires the high achievement of Asian students in mathematics as compared to her own and wonders about the circumstances leading to these results and their implications for America. It is interesting to see whether the societal conditions that produce this high achievement can be applied to America. Observers share their impressions about mathematics teaching and learning in Japan.
Document subjects include mathematics education in Japan as it relates to Japanese history and culture, reasons that Japanese students give for their high achievement, Asian students' going beyond concrete representation and searching for abstractions in problems, relating real- life situations to mathematics teaching, Japanese teacher interest in mathematics, how college graduates in America compare to college graduates in Japan regarding mathematics achievement, the Japanese approach to anticipating students' thinking, the Asian concept of patience and hard work.

IV. Cognition and Curriculum
Return to Table of Contents

The IQ and cognitive abilities of Japanese students are discussed in an effort to ascertain why these students attain such high scores on intelligence, science and mathematics tests. Social and cultural factors may be involved. It has been speculated that there is an affinity between the nature of the Japanese language and the ability to grasp mathematical symbols. Comparisons between textbooks in the United States and Japan show vast differences. Japanese mathematics textbooks are small but concise, leaving room for more lesson elaboration by teachers. Lesson study, which involves peer observation and criticism, is an example of one aspect of Japanese teacher training. Japanese teachers leave classroom management and discipline problems more to the students and their peers. Elementary level learning groups (han) are led by a student leader (hancho). The concept of amae, or dependence, is transferred from the home to the school when teachers become involved with students' home and after school care. The nationally prescribed curriculum in Japan, with the overseeing of textbooks, allows for less freedom and more similarity of teaching methods. Local variations are more the norm in the United States. Current educational reforms have prescribed a more relaxed subject curriculum with more freedom of choice for Japanese students. Efforts at internationalization have stressed the need for foreign language education, especially the English language.

4.001 Abe, Yoshiya, ed. Non- University Sector Higher Education in Japan. 1989. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 310682).
These papers present a detailed perspective of the changing nature of institutions in the non- university sector in Japan. They came about as the result of three research projects. These projects involved short- cycle higher education, United States- Japan cooperative studies on education, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Centre for Educational Research and Innovation projects on university education alternatives. Nine papers are presented which cover the topics of the present status of higher education, transitions in the post- secondary education system and its structure, educational content, finance and administration, and socio- economic role and graduates' employment in the non- university sector.

4.002 Ady, Junko K. "Computer- Mediated Communication in a High School Global Education Curriculum: A Brochure Project." The Social Studies 90 (July/August 1999): 159- 63.
The five Cs of language learning, communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities. These five Cs are relevant to the social studies and to language study because learning about different cultures is necessary for a understanding of society. Describes a project which attempted to evaluate the Japanese language acquisition of students at Panahou School. These students produced brochures in Japanese about Hawaii. They developed writing and interviewing skills and also learned about Japanese culture. They utilized the Internet, e- mail and web- page production. The students learned how to type in Japanese and they conducted field research and interviews with Japanese tourists. They communicated with Japanese citizens by e- mail and presented their findings in the Japanese language. They also had to utilize their artistic skills. The author feels that this approach may be utilized to study other languages and cultures. There are differences in the use of calculators and computers, with Japan favoring more mental computation for its own sake. Most of the students enjoyed the project and felt that it had positive effects. Sample evaluation sheets for the project are presented.

4.003 Akahori, Kanji. "Effectiveness and Some Problems of the Internet Utilization to Education From an Overview of School Practice in Japan." Proceedings of SITE 98 Washington, DC, March 10- 14, 1998. Charlottesville, Va.: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 1998. 6 p.
Describes the one hundred school networking project which began in 1993 in Japan and was sponsored by the MITI (Ministry of International Trade and Industry and Ministry of Education). The project strove to have one server computer in each school. It hoped to gain support by government organizations and local volunteer groups. A voluntary activity plan was to be proposed by each school. The impact of the project is discussed, including 1.its ramifications for society, 2.collaborative learning, 3.the transition from memory- based to problem- based learning, 4. computer teaching and learning (including communication and filtering and evaluating of information), and 5.the Internet as a tool for worldwide communication.

4.0031 Alsawaie, Othman N. "Language Influence on Children's Cognitive Number Representation." School Science and Mathematics 104 (2004): 105- 111.
Discusses the many explanations which have been suggested for the reasons for the superiority of mathematics performance of Asian children. This study focuses on the explanation of linguistic relativity. The similarity between Arabic and English was one of the reasons for conducting this study. The findings in this study were supported by another study which examined the argument that differences in mathematics achievement between American and Japanese students may be explained by variations in cognitive representation of numbers resulting from differences in numerical language characteristics. The results of this study strengthen the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Language might explain the differences among ways of representing numbers. Mathematics teachers in English and Arabic speaking countries may use the results of this study to help their students overcome obstacles to mathematics achievement in their language. Suggestions for activities these teachers may engage in are given. Using an explicit grouping language was the most beneficial for children.

4.004 Antonek, Janis L., et al. "Interactive Homework: Creating Connections Between Home and School." Mosaic (Spring 1995): 1- 10.
The concept of interactive homework requires parent and student participation in the schooling process. This concept is discussed. It was used in a Japanese as a foreign language program at Falk Laboratory School at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Kindergarten through fifth grade classes were observed.

4.005 "Arima Ascendant." Nature 397 (January 21, 1999): 183.
Japan's Prime Minister's appointment of Akito Arima, physicist and former president of Tokyo University as Minister of Education and head of the Science and Technology Agency is applauded. Arima had experienced as president of Tokyo University and as head oaf the Science and Technology Agency's Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (RIKEN). The merger of the Education Ministry and the Science and Technology Agency involved two very dissimilar groups. The overlapping functions of the Agency and Ministry could pose problems. Arima was supposed to introduce a nationwide system for assessing research in universities and institutes of the agency. He was also supposed to promote greater public awareness of science and a stronger science curriculum in the schools. The areas of marine and space science were to be rationalized for overlapping areas. This was supposed to be a delicate task.

4.006 Aronowitz, Stanley. "National Standards Would Not Change Our Cultural Capital." Clearing House 69 (January/February 1996): 144- 47.
The author believes that national educational standards will result in a conformist culture in the United States. He discusses European countries and Japan where the national curriculum "fits" students into a stratified system of occupations. It is stated that the "European education system was the result of an explicit class system and the need to train a cohort of intellectual workers for specific purposes." Establishing national standards in the United States, although directed towards economic and moral issues and inequities, might worsen rather than correct these inequities. Great variation in curriculum and pedagogy, a shortage of teachers and resources in low socioeconomic areas, prejudice against credentials of students in low socioeconomic areas and funding for existing poor schools are the primary reasons for the suggestion to adopt a national curriculum in America. The author refutes these points. He suggests that a national curriculum could mean the death of democratic education.

4.007 "Arts Education in Other Cultures." Arts Education Policy Review 97 (March/April 1996): 10- 34.
This special section deals with arts education policy issues in countries other than the United States. It discusses the art forms of visual arts, music and theater in France, Israel, Canada and Japan.

4.008 Baba, Masateru, and Yukimasa Hayata. "The Changing Role of JUAA in Japanese University Evaluation." Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 22 (September 1997): 329- 35.
This paper traces the history of the JUAA or Japanese University Accreditation Association and its relationship with the Japanese central government regarding university evaluation. This organization has taken major turns. It was a strong governing unit in 1947 and took a lesser role in the 1950s with the establishment of strong educational centralization. At this time it was involved in enhancing educational reforms. This article gives a brief history of the JUAA and why it failed to become a force in university evaluation in the 1950s. Major damage was done to the JUAA when the University Establishment Standards were issued by the Ministry of Education in October 1956. When the JUAA conceded to the University Chartering Committee by relinquishing to it the function of establishing university establishment standards, it returned to its previous role of evaluating teaching and research. The JUAA refocused and in May 1994 it issued new university standards for new accreditation taking effect in Fall 1996. The challenges for the future of the JUAA are speculated upon. JUAA must be financially independent and it needs to be trained in organizational skills such as communication, leadership and delegation of power. It must also have a good functional relationship with administrators.

4.009 Barnard, Nicolas. "Japanese Resist Setting For Sums." Times Educational Supplement 4323 (May 7, 1999): 6.
Japanese children start school at six which is eighteen months later than they do in England. Within two years their achievement in mathematics is much higher than that of British children. Japan boasts a narrower range of achievement but her pupils do better at all levels. Two years of kindergarten in Japan minimize differences created by disadvantaged children. The Japanese curriculum is more uniform as contrasted with the English curriculum which employs a variety of teaching methods. Great Britain's National Institute of Economic and Social Research has conducted long- term research into Japanese teaching. Results suggest that Japanese success in mathematics education could be attributed to a later start, better classroom resources, and less tracking. Tracking is largely absent in Japan. Teaching methods in England and Japan are compared. Japan favors inclusive non- competitive, non- ability grouped education which produces a narrower range of achievement but at a much higher level than England. Japanese classrooms are modestly furnished and communication, which sometimes produces a high noise level, is encouraged.

4.010 Bartholomew, James R. The Formation of Science in Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
Discusses the cultural background of Japanese feudalism. The borrowing of American and European achievements during the years 1868- 1921 created a tradition of domestic scientific research in Japan. These years, when Meiji reformers imported the practices and content of Western science, enabled Japanese science to reach a point of self- sustaining growth.

4.011 Basic Facts and Figures About the Educational System in Japan. 1990. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 341596).
Includes tables, charts, and graphs along with supporting data on the Japanese educational system. Chapters in this booklet include fundamental principles of education, organization, statistics, curricula, textbooks and instructional aids, teachers, administration and finance, and educational reform trends. Also included in appendices are tables of institutions by number and chronological history tables, including the year 1941.

4.012 Beauchamp, Edward R. Japanese Education and the Development of Postwar Educational Policy, 1945- 1985. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1985.
Chronicles major breakthroughs in Japanese educational policy since World War II. Takes into consideration how world affairs shaped Japanese educational policy. Discusses the role of the central government especially from 1950- 1960 and the development of a centralized education ministry. Moral education was expanded. Industry played a large part in influencing the schools. Discusses higher education and related aspects of the youth culture. The pre- 1945 period is analyzed for its later influence.

4.013 _____________. Preparing Teachers for Japan's Classrooms. Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1996.
Reviews the development of teacher education in Japan from 1868 to the present, including Prime Minister Nakasone's reform strategy of the 1980s. He created a new National Council on Educational Reform (NCER) which proposed major teacher education reforms. These included strengthening preservice education, an emphasis on graduate education, an internship program and a program of alternative certification.

4.014 _____________. Windows on Japanese Education. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
Summarizes the history of Japanese education from its earliest beginnings to 1985. Topics covered are educational reform, finance, preschools, task persistence, mathematics teaching, science and engineering, education and the economy, educating women, teachers and Koreans, examination hell, future trends and comparisons with other countries. The years covering 1983- 1986 were considered crisis years for Japanese education. Reforms during this time focused on school violence, bullying and suicides, school refusal, examination hell, internationalization, creativity, rote learning, moral education, teacher training, women's education and educational financing. Most of the expense of public education is financed by local governments and is heavily subsidized by the central government. Discusses the yochien (mostly private day care centers for three to six year olds) and the hoikuen (mostly public day care centers). Attendance at public or private schools is much less determined by class rank in Japan than it is in the United States. Persistence and endurance are much prized qualities in Japanese society and are taught throughout the school years. The Japanese mathematics curriculum which is very concise and has some Western influences, is discussed. The Japanese population is less than half the size of the American population, yet Japan graduates the same number of engineers as the United States and about half as many scientists. The history of the educational system as it relates to the needs of labor and the economy is discussed. Japanese teachers are now becoming more subject specialists. They must pass rigorous examinations and their roles are shaped by the cultural expectations of the society. Shudan seikatsu, or the concept of group life, permeates Japanese schools and society. Tannin, who are teachers assigned to particular grade levels, are similar to guidance counselors, which do not exist in Japan's schools. Reforms include more internships for teachers and relaxing the rigorous certification requirements. Educational rights for minorities in Japan lag behind those of many advanced nations. However, ethnic schools such as Mindan for South Koreans and Chosoren for North Koreans are decreasing. Non- Japanese do not have compulsory school attendance. Almost all Koreans must use two names, a family name and a Japanese name for daily activities. It is felt that competitive examinations separate the elite from the masses. The United States offers more prestigious jobs and more graduate training than Japan does. "Examination hell" has Western influences. Japanese students achieve at lower levels while American students achieve at the college level.

4.015 "A Beginning Bibliography of English Language Publications Concerning Science Education in Japan." Science Education 70 (June 1986): 351- 54.
Presents a list of resources in the English language which discuss science education in Japan. Topics covered are engineering education and putting science into its proper context. Also includes descriptive reports and studies of selected schools.

4.016 Berliner, David, and Ursula Casanova. "Are We Expecting Enough Effort From Students?" Instructor 97 (September 1987): 16- 17.
Discusses a study which measured superior performance in Asian and American elementary school children. The findings were that three factors influence school success, namely, class time devoted to academics and direct instruction, effort made by students, and parental guidance and support.
4.017 Berman, David M. "A Case Study of the High School Entrance Examination in Chiba Prefecture, Japan." Theory and Research in Social Education 18 (Fall 1990): 387- 404.
Examines the role of the Japanese prefecture (similar to a United States state) in school administration by looking at its administration of the high school entrance examination. States that the examination places students into an education hierarchy.

4.018 Bethel, Dayle M. Makiguchi the Value Creator, Revolutionary Japanese Educator and Founder of Soka Gakkai. N.Y.: Weatherhill, 1973.
This book tells the story of Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, a remarkable reacher and educator who lived in Japan when that nation emerged as a world power. The Soka Gakkai, a remarkable religious organization that he founded, is also described. He dealt with the nature of science and evolution and their importance in human life. He struggled to integrate the diverse philosophies in Japanese cultural heritage and to relate them to practical educational needs. In this way he made an important contribution to the history and philosophy of Japanese education. His educational philosophy is based in large part on his conversion to the Nichiren Shoshu sect of Buddhism. He was a prolific author who was influenced by John Dewey and the recognition of education's sociological dimensions. He was staunchly against rote memorization. He strove to bring out the creative potential in students. He was a believer in effort rather than innate ability. He stands as the chief spokesman for Japanese pragmatism.

4.019 Biederman, Marcia. "Japanese Math Program Tallies Success With Discipline." New York Times (November 15, 2000): B,15.
Describes the Kumon method which quickly swept Japan and which enrolls approximately 2.6 million students. It is a slow regimented approach to a mathematics teaching program which enables children to teach themselves mathematics in tiny increments. This method was devised by Toru Kumon, a Japanese mathematics teacher, after his eight- year old son failed a mathematics test. The program was considered to be potentially valuable by a mathematics commission formed to advise the city Board of Education. This method turned into a company, the Kumon Math and Reading Centers, with 24,600 franchises around the world, 36 of which are in New York City. The program has also been implemented in some schools in Washington where the program had very positive results. Approximately two hours per week are devoted to the Kumon program in Japan. The program uses practice sheets. It is mostly suited to elementary school students. It is felt that the program is "principally focused on the skills of computation." It is believed that the Kumon method should not be the centerpiece of a school program, since computation is only a small part of mathematics.

4.020 Blake, Sally. "Integrating Cultural Diversity and Mathematics in the Curriculum." Dimensions of Early Childhood 25 (Spring 1997): 5- 10.
Discusses ideas on the use of cultural symbols from festivals and celebrations to teach mathematics and enhance childrens' appreciation of diversity. Themes such as the New Year from Asian countries and cultural activities from Mayan and Aztec societies are demonstrated.

4.021 Blau, Eileen Kay. "More On Comprehensible Input: The Effect of Pauses and Hesitation Markers on Listening Comprehension." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Puerto Rico Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, San Juan, 1991.
Describes two studies, one in Puerto Rico and one in Japan, which attempted to assess the effects of pauses and hesitation markers on listening comprehension in English as a Second Language (ESL) university students. Results indicated that comprehension of the version with filled pauses was much higher than the version without pauses. In the Japanese education majors, the same result was true. The conclusion is that hesitation markers are an effective aid to listening comprehension.

4.022 Blinco, Priscilla N. "The Role of Television in Early Childhood Education in Japan." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Atlanta, 1988.
States that educational television is used in Japan throughout all school levels. The public broadcasting company NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai) and various commercial broadcasting companies contribute to its availability. It is surmised that Japanese preschool children watch an average of three hours of television each day, with many of the programs being educational in nature. Some programs are with audience- participation and some are incorporated into the primary school teaching plans. The use of Japanese educational television is increasing.

4.023 Bloomfield, David C. "Life Imitates Pokemon: the Virtues and Necessities of Technology- Based Peer Education in Today's Schools." Social Policy 30 (Fall 1999): 13- 19.
Many educators need to adapt to technology that students take for granted. Technology venders and parents are convinced that this is the way of the future. Peer tutoring has been shown to be the most cost- effective way to improve achievement in mathematics and reading. The entertainment value of peer education which is free of adult supervision is very enjoyable and successful. Teachers may benefit from students' computer literacy which may be better than their own. Peer education can be cost effective and can give teachers more time to spend on tasks that can be done by students. The success of peer education is discussed with its relationship to the Pokemon video game and the overall relationship of peer education and technology. Money for technological development is a prime concern. Education must adapt to new technologies that students take for granted and the peer relationships that these technologies engender. New instructional and administrative strategies must be undertaken to improve educational outcomes and prevent the maintenance of an outmoded status quo.

4.024 Bracey, Gerald W. "Achievement Versus Problem Solving in Mathematics." Phi Delta Kappan 75 (April 1994): 648- 49.
States that a better understanding is needed to explain international differences in mathematics performance. American teachers spend much more time on language than on mathematics. In Japan the two subjects are treated equally. Japanese teachers worry about teaching techniques. American teachers worry about low achievement. The authors feel that if American students were exposed to the same amount of mathematics as Japanese students are, their achievement levels would equal those of Japan. Discusses a study reported in the March 1991 issue of the Journal of Educational Psychology where it was found that Japanese students performed better than American students on mathematics achievement tests. American students did better on problem- solving tests. The authors suggest that the difference may reflect different levels of emphasis placed on language skills versus mathematics in America and Japan. The November 1993 issue of the above journal gives further interpretation of this data.

4.025 ______________. "Asian and American Schools Again: Summary of Research by J. Cai and E. Silver." Phi Delta Kappan 77 (May 1996): 641- 42.
This article summarizes the research by J. Cai and P. George which examined education in Asia. A study by George looked at the teaching methods in a twelfth grade Japanese mathematics class where instructional methods were almost entirely made up of lectures. There were some occasional questions asked of students with drills, board work and other large group techniques. This rote approach to mathematics teaching which is prevalent in Asian schools is probably not good for training students to solve complex problems. In this study, American students outperformed the Asian students in the solving of complex problems. A comparison of American and Chinese sixth- graders showed that Chinese students outperformed Americans in solving computation and component problems. Perhaps the rote approach to mathematics teaching in Asian schools influenced this outcome. The Japanese Ministry of Education insists that individualized instruction is important. In spite of this, teacher- directed, textbook- centered, large group instruction was the only kind observed in use by Japanese teachers.

4.026 _____________. "'Diverging' American and Japanese Science Scores." Phi Delta Kappan 81 (June 2000): 791- 92.
States that according to the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, (TIMSS), Japanese and American students perform similarly in science at fourth grade, but by seventh grade Japanese students remain near the top of all countries studied. This can be attributed to a positive attachment to school and commitment to the values of hard work and cooperation. Japanese textbooks are deliberately kept thin. Japanese teachers are very collegial. Class size is large. Japanese teachers feel that their instruction is greatly influenced by Western techniques. American students are at about the middle of all countries studied, approximately twenty- three points lower than the Japanese students, almost one American grade level. It is stated that Japanese families and society are responsible for promoting children's positive educational attachment. The author disputes the above findings about Japanese education. He also disputes facts about group class structure, content of textbooks, socialization of children, teacher collegiality, and class size.

4.027 _____________. "The Japanese Education System is a Failure, Say Some Japanese." Phi Delta Kappan 79 (December 1997): 328- 29. see 5.015

4.028 _____________. "Minds of Our Own." Phi Delta Kappan 80 (December 1998): 328- 29.
Discusses a three- part videotape series about our misconceptions regarding how the world works. The point of the tapes is that children bring to the classroom preconceived ideas about how the world works which are very resistant to change. Many of these ideas are wrong and pedagogy does not help teachers teach for understanding and detect misunderstandings. However, findings from the TIMSS (Third International Mathematics and Science Study) found that Japan has overcome or bypassed these pedagogical problems to a certain extent. Japanese textbooks are much thinner than American textbooks. The videotapes of American and German teachers teaching mathematics on the TIMSS tapes show that American and German teachers are interested in procedures, algorithms and multiple choice tests. The TIMSS tapes of Japanese teachers show that they are more like inquirers, linking one day's work to the previous day. Japanese eighth- graders ranked third among forty- one nations in the TIMSS assessment. Presents eight principles of inquiry regarding teaching principles.

4.029 _____________. "Problem Solving, East and West." Phi Delta Kappan 77 (November 1995): 258.
In Japanese textbooks the instructional lesson was more than four times longer than equivalent sesctions in American textbooks. Japanese textbooks made greater use of worked- out examples and concrete analogies than American textbooks did. Japanese textbooks had more relevant illustrations and American textbooks had more irrelevant illustrations. Discusses an article published in the summer 1995 issue of American Educational Research Journal which compared the presentation of addition and subtraction problems with signed numbers. The authors contend that the results indicate that Japanese mathematics instruction stresses problem solving more effectively than American instruction does. Cognitive modeling of problem solving processes is emphasized more in Japan than in the United States. Drill and practice on the product of problem solving is emphasized more in the United States. American students proved to be deficient in problem solving and computation as compared with their Japanese counterparts. However, one test conducted in 1991, showed the American students outscoring the Japanese on a problem- solving test. American students outscored Japanese studens on computational achievement.

4.030 _____________."The Seventh Bracey Report on the Condition of Public Education." Phi Delta Kappan 79 (October 1997): 120- 37.
In the section on Japanese education, the author says that western countries are busy seeking to emulate Japanese schools, while Japanese schools are being pressured by employers to turn out workers with creativity and individuality. Susan Goya, an American teacher who taught for a long time in Japanese high schools, states that the Japanese school curriculum is tough and unbending and that many students do not know what is going on at the advanced levels. Other educators also report wide gaps between the presented curriculum and the attained curriculum. There is a very wide gap in levels of achievement between Asian and American countries. Japanese students, according to the data from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), have a very sizeable edge over American students in mathematics. This is true to a lesser extent in science. However, the author contends that Japanese student achievement is not as great as is commonly thought. There is more on the job training in Japan. Japanese auto makers provide about 325 hours of training for new workers at Japanese factories and about 300 hours of training for new workers at their American factories. Americans provide fifty hours of training for new workers at American automobile factories.

4.031 _____________."Sixth Bracey Report on the Condition of Public Education." Phi Delta Kappan 78 (October 1996): 127- 38.
Discusses the rankings of American and Japanese students in the Second International Assessment of Educational Progress with some of the differences between American and Japanese schools. Japanese students attend private schools and after school schools or juku. Japanese students' motivation and intense competitiveness along with their tendencies towards rote learning are discussed. It is felt that the juku are necessary because the quality of public school education in Japan is poor. Entrance examinations in Japan are very difficult at all levels. Students tend very strongly towards conformity. Students who behave differently from the group are often strongly ostracized and bullied by other students who have no regrets about their aggressive behavior.

4.032 Brenner, Mary E., et al. "Cross- National Comparison of
Representational Competence: American, Chinese, Japanese, and Taiwanese 6th Graders." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 30 (November 1999): 541- 57.
A key component of competent mathematical thinking and problem solving is flexible use of multiple representations. It is suggested that Asian students' high level of mathematical achievement may be due to their greater understanding of mathematical representations. They outscored the American students on most test items. The gap in performance between the American students and the Asian groups was greater for the representational items than for the solution items. In addition to having stronger basic skills, the Asian students in this study had conceptual skills that would give them an advantage. Japanese mathematics textbooks were found to be superior to American mathematics textbooks. Evidence indicates that American students may have less systematic exposure to multiple representations than Asian students typically receive. The use of concrete manipulative enables teachers to introduce proportional reasoning much earlier than it is introduced in America.

4.033 Buckley, Setsuko. "A Study of Field- Independent/Field- Dependent Cognitive Styles of Japanese Students and Correlations With Their Academic Achievement in Two American High Schools." Ed.D. dissertation. University of Washington, 1992.
This study identified cognitive styles of Japanese versus American students in two American high schools using the field independence/dependence test (FI/D). Cognitive styles of the Japanese students may relate to their academic achievement as measured by standardized tests, their gender, and years in American schools.

4.034 Budge, David. "Organized Confucians." Times Educational Supplement 4319 (October 27, 1995): 10.
Research regarding mathematics teaching in Japanese secondary schools, which was done by Julia H. Whitburn, gives some reasons for Japanese children's success in mathematics. These reasons include their Confucian ideals, time spent with textbooks, Japanese school organization and Japanese teaching techniques. Unlike the United States, topics are taught with great deliberation using standardized teaching guides handed down by the Japanese Ministry of Education.

4.035 "Building a 'Storehouse of Memories' With Lesson Study: Interview With M. Sato." Harvard Education Letter 18 (May/June 2002): 8.
Professor Sato of the Graduate School of Education at the University of Tokyo discusses the use of lesson study in Japanese education. He cites its advantages and disadvantages and discusses its importance for teacher training. He also discusses the role of parents in the educational system and comments on professionalism in teaching.
4.036 "Can We Win the Brain Race With the Japanese?" An Interview With Denis P. Doyle." School Administrator 48 (August 1991): 16- 20.
States that Japanese students' high achievement levels may be attributed to high standards in all aspects of life and much effort devoted to problem solving. Natural ability is not considered important. The inadequacy of Japanese colleges is also discussed.

4.037 Cantor, Leonard. "Vocational Education and Training: the Japanese Approach." Comparative Education 21 (1985): 67- 76.
Discusses Japanese vocational education and its strengths and weaknesses. Elaborates on the extensive industrial training programs which are supported by the state. Also includes a general discussion of the Japanese "obsession" with education. Japan's vocational education system has contributed substantially to her economic and industrial prosperity. On the job training is extensive and long- term. The Vocational Training Law and its amendments show a firm commitment to long- term planning for vocational education.

4.038 Carlin, Peter. "Student Body." People Weekly 51 (January 11, 1999): 62- 64.
Describes the school that was established in Ichinosetakahashi, Japan for Daiki Saito, a seven- year old who is the only pupil in the school. The village has a population of nineteen. The town spent $100,000 to renovate the building and spends $175,000 for the salaries of the one teacher and principal. Daiki shares lunch with his teacher and her husband, the principal. He enjoys playing in an empty playground because he loves nature. The solitary student also spends one day a week with students at a school in the next district, thirty minutes away.

4.039 Carlisle, Ronald L., et al. "Japan: Faculty and Curriculum Development Seminars, Part III." Liberal Education 85 (Spring 1999): 42- 45.
This article, the last in a series of three accounts by three college professors who were participants in the "Japan Seminar," involved campus visits in Japan, and focused on the cultural question of national identity through study tours. Each participates gives an account of his experiences and how they helped him in his teaching position in the United States. One goal of the seminar was to expand upon the Japan- related content in the college courses that the participants taught. Japanese instructors gave some meaningful and innovative ideas to their visiting American professors. The study tours focused on the development of a curriculum which includes Japan. A tour was made of Japanese media, cinema and technology. These observations were to be used to develop Asian Studies programs and Japan- related course content, specifically at Mississippi State University. This course content included the establishment of a Japan Studies film series.

4.040 Cassidy, Sarah. "Nursery Lessons 'Damage' Learning." Times Educational Supplement 4361 (January 28, 2000): 6.
The National Institute of Economic and Social Research concluded that teaching reading, writing and numbers to English preschool children damages their ability to learn mathematics. The numeracy strategy for establishing a common structure to mathematics lessons is considered for introduction. English children start school at a younger age. For this reason, their social and behavioral skills are not mature enough to enable them to learn. Japanese primary teachers, whose students start school later, do not spend as much time dealing with misbehavior as their English counterparts.

4.041 Chee, Yeon Kyung, et al. "Development and Implementation of a Train- The- Trainer Curriculum on Successful and Productive Aging." Educational Gerontology 24 (July- August 1998): 509- 20.
Describes the development of a gerontological training program for allied health occupations in two Japanese colleges which was based upon a similar program in the United States. This intensive training program entitled "Successful and Productive Aging" incorporated prevention, health maintenance, care giving and preparation for retirement. Social support and infrastructure for welfare systems and also medical care are important for the care of the aged. Curricula were to be established at the undergraduate level. There was a collaboration with two Japanese junior colleges to develop a long- term institute on gerontology. Specific goals and courses are outlined. Duties of specific organizations are summarized. Presents the results of this cross- national collaboration and how information which was gathered was being integrated into the Japanese colleges.

4.042 Chen, Chuansheng, et al. "Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children: Ten Years Later." Science 259 (January 1, 1993): 53- 58.
In spite of the heightened emphasis on these subjects in the U.S. curriculum during the last decade, mathematics and science achievement among American schoolchildren lagged behind that of their Chinese and Japanese counterparts by as great a degree in 1990 as it did in 1980. American parental attitudes towards these subjects have also not changed.

4.043 Cipra, Barry. "An Awesome Look at Japan's Math SAT." Science 259 (January 1, 1993): 22.
The Japanese UECE test which is similar to the American SAT is taken by fourteen percent of Japanese students as compared to thirty- one percent for American students. States that Japanese high school students are way above American students, especially in mathematics achievement. Gives examples of some of the mathematics problems found in the Japanese 1990 University Entrance Center Examination (UECE) which is the equivalent of the American Scholastic Aptitude Test. It is felt that the complexity of the mathematics portion of the UECE could only be tackled by the best American students while the average Japanese students would have no problem with it.

4.044 Clark, David. "The Use of Digitized Films for Teaching Honorifics in Japanese." Journal of Educational Computing Research 20 (1999): 25- 38.
Discusses how films in interactive video (IV) format may be used to teach honorifics in Japanese schools. Includes the influences of Confucianism, Bourdieu's "language and symbolic power," Bachnik's notion of variability, Lebra's "bun" concept and Hendry's "linguistic wrapping" or keigo.

4.045 Coble, Charles R., and Floyd E. Mattheis. "A Study of the Logical Thinking Skills and Integrated Process Skills of Junior High School Students in North Carolina and Japan." Science Education 76 (April 1992): 211- 22.
Compares logical thinking skills of junior high school students in North Carolina and Japan and concludes that Japanese students performed significantly better than their North Carolina counterparts. Japanese educators have expressed concern for developing students' thinking skills. This study examined the relationships between developmental levels of thinking and integrated process skills. Japanese students scored higher and applied integrated science process skills on a much higher level than students in North Carolina. Japanese students in the seventh through ninth grades performed much better than students in North Carolina with integrated process skills and logical reasoning. These results may be due to differences in the elementary school science programs in the two countries.

4.046 Coldbeck, Michael. "Japanese Chemical Education." Chemistry and Industry 6 (March 18, 1996): 217.
This article looks at teaching and learning chemistry in Japanese high schools by the author who spent thirteen months studying the teaching and learning of chemistry in Japanese high schools. Japanese students are increasingly choosing not to study science or to embark on scientific careers. The author states that what and why we teach are all determined by the past and by social structures and ingrained social attitudes. He comments on the lack of Nobel laureates coming from Japan and stresses the need for more creative teaching and learning. Compared with his experiences in Great Britain Japanese teachers teach less time and are involved in more support activities. They also have less paperwork. Japanese classes are much larger than classes in Great Britain. He says that Western and Oriental societies have different attitudes towards science, with Western societies being "why" societies and Oriental societies being "how" societies because of their anthropocentricity. Acquisition of facts is important in Japan- this at the expense of originality and creativity. Gambaru, or the idea of pushing oneself to the limit, along with moral virtues, are part of all Japanese educational philosophy including scientific education. Japanese chemistry teachers share the enthusiasm of all of Japan's teachers. They involve themselves in students' extra- curricular chemistry clubs and they teach long hours. The latest revision of the national curriculum offers three chemistry levels: IA (average), IB (traditional), and IIB (most advanced) for those pursuing science as a career. The author states that chemical educators in Japan and Europe have the similar goals of training students to know and to think. He quotes Confucius' saying "study without thought is futile, but thought without study is fatal."

4.047 Collins, David R. Dr. Shinichi Suzuki: Teaching Music from the Heart. Greensboro, N.C.: Morgan Reynolds, 2002.
This biography of the famous violin teacher states that he traveled to Germany to study violin in 1920. He felt that the higher purpose of music was to "further the happiness of all people." He wished to spread this joy to all people, especially children. When he returned to Japan he started the Talent Education Program which was based on the philosophy that all children had a talent which could enrich their lives. The Suzuki violin teaching method emphasizes "positive reinforcement, group practice, parental involvement" and love and respect. Suzuki's method was useful for other musical instruments as well.

4.048 "A Comparison of Calculator Use in Eighth- Grade Mathematics Classrooms in the United States, Japan, and Portugal: Results From the Third International Mathematics and Science Study." School Science and Mathematics 100 (March 2000): 139- 50.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), in its document entitled Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989), advocated the use of calculators at all school levels. This document states that the new technology has made calculations and graphing easier. It states that calculators do not eliminate the need for students to learn algorithms. Results of calculator use showed marked differences for Japan versus America and Portugal. Thirteen- year olds in the United States, Japan and Portugal were studied to compare their use of calculators during the Third International Mathematics and Science Study conducted in 1994- 1995. Results showed that there were relatively high levels of calculator use for the United States and Portugal and relatively low levels for Japan. It was also found that students in Japan who used calculators were poorer achievers than those who did not. Other questions studied were the role of technology in mathematics and science curricula and variations in mathematics and science curricula in the different countries. Researchers have found that some positive aspects of calculator use are that it aids in problem solving, number sense and understanding of arithmetic operations. It is suggested that the minimal use of calculators in Japan is related to a "cultural ethos that downplays technology."

4.049 Computational Alternatives for the Twenty- First Century: Cross- Cultural Perspectives from Japan and the United States. Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1994.
Discusses the results of the Joint Japan- United States Seminar entitled "Computation for the Twenty- First Century: Cross Cultural Perspectives," which was held in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1990. Describes the historical and contemporary background of these computational alternatives and their implications for school mathematics instruction. Japanese and American mathematics educators both contribute to this discussion. They both feel that more time should be given to developing mental computation, estimation and calculator use and less time should be devoted to written computation. Japanese and American mathematics textbooks differ greatly in content. In Japan, they are influenced by Japan's national mathematics curriculum which oversees textbooks. Japanese textbooks are brief guides for the teacher, in contrast to the encyclopedic textbooks used in American classes. In Japan, computation is introduced much sooner than in the United States and multiplication is mastered in the second grade. Japanese teaching styles and procedures are remarkably similar, unlike local and other variations in American schools. Mental computation, computational estimation, cognition, the use of the soroban (abacus) and the use of calculators in America and Japan are discussed and compared. Japanese educators consider mental computation a basic skill while American educators consider it a higher order thinking process. The history of mental computation is traced for both countries. Some educators think that calculators will take over paper and pencil computation. Essays regarding computational estimation, calculators, and cognitive processes are presented. Similarities and differences in calculator use in Japan and the United States are discussed. It is concluded that calculator use is much higher in the United States than in Japan.

4.050 Cooper, Eileen. "The Japanese Approach to Gifted and Talented Students." Gifted Child Today Magazine 22 (March- April 1999): 18- 21.
Japanese schools do not attempt to classify or identify the gifted students the way American schools do. Japanese teachers strive to be egalitarian and to encourage students to make a strong effort to succeed. Recognition of innate differences is avoided. There is also no teaching of higher level thinking skills although the potential for achieving high level thinking is there. Achievement tests only begin for college entrance examinations. They are lacking before this time. States that the Japanese approach to the education of the gifted does not allow gifted students to learn at their own pace. They are held back for the benefit of the group. It is urged that Japan should allow their gifted students to be educated for excellence. The author predicts that if the Japanese cultivated education for the gifted the world economy would be inundated with Japanese ingenuity and originality. Calligraphy and the use of the abacus would enable this originality. If Japanese culture kept its group dynamic while at the same time nurturing exceptional ability they would be much more competitive with other nations.

4.051 Cooper, Thomas C., and Valerie Miller Maloof. "Parent Involvement In Teaching Elementary- Level Chinese, Japanese, and Korean." Journal of Educational Research 92 (January/February 1999): 176- 83.
Schools are being challenged to meet the needs of diverse populations of students due to immigration. Home- school relationships with international parents are becoming increasingly common. Describes a year- long, federally funded curriculum project involving an elementary school and a state university where international parents taught Chinese, Japanese and Korean. These parents were members of minority groups living in the United States. These languages are considered less commonly taught or LCTL's. Sessions were videotaped. Some were taught by foreign- language education graduate students. The most effective techniques and activities used by the parent- teachers were modifying the lesson, using concrete materials, planning playful contexts to use the target language in and rewarding the students. Modifying the lesson included repeating words or phrases. Playful contexts included the use of songs, rhymes and games. The results of this procedure were very positive showing that parent- involvement proved to be a great benefit and parents should be used to teach less commonly taught languages. Students liked to interact with native speakers and enjoyed sharing their newly- acquired language capabilities with family and friends. They also enjoyed learning about a new culture. Findings were that international parents made good foreign language teachers.

4.052 Cooper- Chen, Anne. "Different Drummers: Education for Journalists in Japan and the U.S.A." Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 52 (Autumn 1997): 16- 26.

  In Japan more than 3,000 people apply for seventy or eighty entry level positions at national newspapers. Students with any major may take the examination but they must score high on the written examination. Journalism positions in American are filled mainly by journalism majors. Women are still discriminated against. Compares education for a journalism career in Japan and the United States. In Japan, there are fewer educational programs. The curricula of Japan's journalism and mass communication programs is more theoretical than what is typical in the United States. It is less oriented toward teaching specific job skills.  University training is emphasized less and on the job training is emphasized more. This is in direct contrast with journalism education programs in the United States. Differences in communication between the two countries regarding spoken and non- verbal behavior are discussed with their supposed effects upon journalism. Japanese people have a strong desire to avoid uncertainty. Their culture of collectivism discourages individual forwardness and talkativeness. Loyalty to employers prompts many professors to publish in in- house or non- refereed journals. Collectivist loyalty is to one's university rather than to the profession of journalism teaching. Joint authorship with colleagues at other institutions is not encouraged. There is no "publish or perish" incentive in the lifetime employment system. There is low research productivity. The media as it is influenced by culture and gender in Japan and the United States is discussed as is the influence of lifetime employment on journalism practices. The author concludes that in spite of the monumental differences on four "dimensions of cultural variability," individualism, uncertainty avoidance, contextuality and masculinity, Japan and the United States will undoubtedly move closer together. More women students in Japan, the end of lifetime employment, and more mass media majors will result in "more consideration of ethics."  Tables regarding freedom of the press in Japan, Japan's major research institutes, and Japanese journals are presented.
4.053 Court, Carole. "May Day: Kodomo- No- Hi." Child Education 73 (May   1996): 47.
  Gives teaching suggestions for teachers for celebrating May Day and Japanese Children's Day. 

4.054 DeCoker, Gary. National Standards and School Reform in Japan and the United States. N.Y.: Teacher's College Press, 2002. see 5.199

4.055 ______________, and Erica Erickson. "Charts and Graphs in Japanese Elementary School Social Studies Textbooks." Social Education 65 (April 2001): 158- 64.
  Japanese teachers spend a great deal of time helping students to interpret data in charts and graphs in social studies textbooks. There are many such charts and graphs in Japanese textbooks as opposed to American social studies textbooks. This article describes Japanese elementary school social studies textbooks with their content and basic characteristics. It explains the nature of four types of graphs which appear in them, bar graphs, line graphs, pie charts, and direction, flow and organization charts with illustrations. Charts and graphs receive more attention in U.S. mathematics textbooks than in Japanese mathematics textbooks, where they rarely appear. Charts appearing in Japanese social studies textbooks are based upon actual data and they are integrated into lesson plans. Mathematics textbooks do not often include a meaningful context for charts and graphs. American teachers cannot look forward to an increase in graphs in social studies textbooks. Instead they should include charts and graphs from other sources to teach analytical skills.
4.056 Devens, Richard M., and Todd M. Godbout. "Employment Growth   and  Educational Attainment." Monthly Labor Review 121 (May 1998): 40- 41.
  Discusses job growth in the United States, Europe and Japan and how it is related to educational attainment. Statistics are given from 1980 to 1996. Charts are given for total numbers of persons employed in the United States, Japan, and Europe and for employment growth by higher and lower educational attainment sectors. Results showed that job growth in the United States outpaced that of Europe and Japan. In the United States and Japan the job rise was related to jobs requiring higher education. In Europe this trend was more muted, but there was a decline in jobs requiring lower education, making the tilt towards jobs requiring higher education  more pronounced.
4.057 Dore, Ronald, and Mari Sako. How the Japanese Learn to Work. London: Routledge, 1998.
  Examines how the Japanese learn to work by looking at vocational education, general education, and the moral quality of the educational process. Attitudes towards vocational education, specialized vocational programs, and explicit types of schools providing vocational training are discussed.  Also discussed are internship courses, correspondence courses, testing, finances, and government programs. There is an extensive bibliography and an appendix of the 1994 Ministry of Education budget for vocational education.
4.058 Dorner, Robert, and Ludwik Kowalski. "Imagination in Japanese Educational Experiments." Technology Teacher 52 (December 1992): 12- 14.
  Describes the K. Ikatura method of experimentation in Japanese schools. In this method, the instructor describes an experiment and its possible outcomes and the students also describe possible outcomes. These predicted outcomes are analyzed after the experiment is over. It is said that this method stimulates "constructive cognitive conflict" and stimulates imaginative thought.
4.059 Dossey, John A. Essential Skills in Mathematics: A Comparative Analysis of American and Japanese Assessments of Eighth- Graders. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1997.
  Discusses many of the national and international mathematics assessment skill studies that were used in the 1980s and 1990s to define essential skills in mathematics and to compare American students with Japanese students. Gives samples of the types of tests and problems which were administered to both groups. Among the data drawn from is the Japanese National Institute of Educational Research's Special Study on Essential Skills in Mathematics (NIER, 1992). American students' performance on the 1990 and 1992 NAEP mathematics assessment (Mullis et al., 1991, 1993) was also considered. These studies provide the first comparisons of Japanese and American eighth graders since the data collected during 1964 in the First International Mathematics Study (Husen, 1967). The studies examined achievement, student and teacher attitudes, classroom environment and community. Results showed that Japanese mathematics test items were more verbally intensive and focused on problem solving. Tests and tables are presented.
4.060 Drake, Bruce D. "An Effective Technique for Reading Research Articles- The Japanese KENSHU Method." Journal of Chemical Education 74 (February 1997): 186- 88.
  Describes a method for teaching reading of research literature called the KENSHU. This method advocates dividing scientific articles into sections, defining their purpose, and preparing a one- page summary.
4.061 Dyer, Brenda, and Lee Friederich. "The Personal Narrative as Cultural Artifact: Teaching Autobiography in Japan." Written Communication 19 (April 2002): 265- 96.
  Explores the purpose and methods of teaching the personal narrative in foreign language classrooms. A cross- cultural comparison of the history, purpose and form of autobiography in first- language contexts in America and Japan is presented. Other topics presented are, 1.a review of the place of personal narrative in second and foreign language composition theory and practice, 2.information from survey research of Japanese freshmen students regarding high school writing instruction in English, and 3.a methodology for teaching personal narrative to Japanese college students studying English. Discusses textbooks and the concept of "scene, summary and musing," as well as peer editing and the bundan writing workshop as an alternative.
4.062 East- West Dialogue in Knowledge and Higher Education. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996.
  Explores the view that the widely exported model of European university education should be less culture- bound. Also addresses the topics of the world history of mathematics and the inherited authority of teachers in Japanese higher education. Other topics discussed include, 1. cultural differences in the reception of university disciplines, 2. cultural graft and higher education, 3. higher education and Western media with Third World coverage, 4. media and education, 5. evaluating higher education in culturally meaningful ways and, 6. evaluation issues in contemporary Japanese universities. Explores ways in which Eastern and European universities can learn from each other philosophically, discussing evaluation across cultures and institutions. Historical challenges to Eastern universities and universities' openness to indigenous knowledge are also discussed.

4.063 The Educational System in Japan: Case Study Findings. Washington, D.C.: National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum, and Assessment, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Dept. of Education, 1998.
  Discusses the results of a case study project in Japan which was a component of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The project was designed to provide in- depth information on education in the three nations of Germany, Japan and the United States.  The topics investigated were educational standards, dealing with ability differences, teachers' working conditions and the meaning of school in adolescents' lives. There is a unified curriculum in Japanese schools and no programs for the gifted. The curriculum includes academic subjects, moral education and special activities. Efforts at educational reform include the introduction of more electives and an emphasis on conceptual rather than rote learning. Reforms also strive for an increased emphasis on individual differences (kojinsa). Japanese culture perceives personality as the product of nature, or seiiku, or family background and nurture.  Ability grouping is non- existent until the end of junior high school when juku meet various needs such as hoshu juku (remediation) and shingaku juku (fast- track).  Secondary school students are discouraged to have part- time employment which would interfere with their academic achievement. Japanese teachers enjoy high- paying prestigious jobs which are comparable with those in industry. Their assignments with a class are for two years instead of one. The roles and duties of teachers and administrators are discussed. A typical day for students is illustrated. Statistical tables of enrollment trends, school hours, school subjects, daily schedules and a floor plan are given.

4.064 Efron, Sonni. "California's Perilous Slide: Japan's Example: Teachers, After Passing Rigorous Exams, Receive Intense  Supervision in First Year Series." Los Angeles Times (May 19, 1998): 4.
  A new teacher, Toru Teraoka, describes his initiation into teaching at Nara Elementary School. This included three days of tests. He also had to demonstrate his expertise in drawing, piano playing and swimming. When he was assigned to his class he was mentored by a senior teacher and was trained for sixty days. He also attended lectures on school bullying and human rights. He attended a children's history course and planted and harvested crops. He studied subjects in school courses to enable him to notice troubled children sooner. Some sample questions from the examination given to new teachers are presented. Since 1992 the Education Ministry provided school districts with subsidies and required that one part- time substitute teacher be hired to supplement each first- year teacher.
4.065 "The Elementary Curriculum." Principal 76 (September 1996): 6- 12.
  This special section on the Japanese elementary school curriculum includes information about its emphasis on social, emotional, and ethical development along with academics. Broad considerations regarding elementary education in general and elementary education in the United States are also discussed.

4.066 Ellington, Lucien. Japanese Education in Grades K- 12. 2001.  (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 458185).
States that the Japanese educational system, particularly its K- 12 schools, is one of the very best in the world.  Educational achievements, educational structure, curriculum, social studies education, reforms and World Wide Web sites regarding Japanese education are discussed. Over 95 percent of the Japanese population is literate in the very difficult Japanese language. Japanese teachers enjoy high salaries and prestige, hence there are few teacher shortages. American schools have more administrators and support personnel. Japanese schools have only two administrators, a principal and a head teacher. American high schools are comprehensive while Japanese high schools are university track or vocational. Mathematics and Japanese language instruction is highly specialized and taught by teachers highly skilled in the subjects. Textbooks still tend to be biased and to cover up Japan's unfavorable activities. Moral education is still taught. Beginning with the 2002 school year, major curricular reform was undertaken. Integrated Studies programs were introduced with few guidelines and no textbooks. This enabled students to study the subjects that interested them.  An educational advisory body was formed by the late Prime Minister Obuchi calling for mandatory community service for secondary school students. Some students were allowed to enter university at age fifteen instead of eighteen. Entrance examinations were to be made less central, although they have not diminished in importance.
4.067 Fernandez, Clea, et al. "Japanese and American Students'  Differential Recognition Memory for Teachers'  Statements During a Mathematics Lesson." Journal of Educational  Psychology 85 (December 1993): 610- 17.
Examined Japanese and American students' recognition memory for statements made during a videotaped mathematics lesson.  The patterns of recognition were determined to be cultural rather than knowledge- based. Japanese and American fourth graders were found to show very different recognition memory patterns while watching a mathematics lesson on videotape. It is believed that these patterns result from differences in lesson schemata used by Japanese and American students. Differences in perceiving relevant versus irrelevant material in a lesson are discussed for Japanese and American students.
4.068 Fitzpatrick, Michael. "Payment By Results Sparks Opposition." Times Educational Supplement 4323 (May 7, 1999): 24.
  Teacher performance was to be evaluated by the criteria of ability, enthusiasm, attitude and achievement. Private schools began to grade teachers based on student evaluations. Many teachers resented the increased authority given to head teachers in their evaluation procedures. Performance- related pay was to be introduced in Japanese schools according to proposals made by the Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education. School principals were to make personal assessments to reward "effective" teachers.
4.069 Flynn, James Robert. Asian Americans: Achievement Beyond IQ. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum, 1991.
  This book shows that Asian Americans, particularly Chinese and Japanese Americans, achieve academically far beyond what their mean IQ (Intelligence Quotient) would lead one to expect. Test scores, genes and the environment are discussed with brain diagrams and verbal versus nonverbal differences between ethnic groups. Chinese, Irish and Black Americans are specifically discussed. A detailed analysis of the IQ and achievement of Chinese and Japanese Americans, emphasizing those who were born in America or migrated to American prior to 1970 is given. The periods before this time are also discussed, as are different parts of the United States with extensive test results from many localities. Estimate are given for the mean IQ's of Chinese and Japanese Americans. There is an attempt to measure the disparity between IQ's and academic achievements. Chinese and Japanese Americans outperform Caucasians at every IQ level and their numbers are disproportionate in prestigious professions. The author feels that Chinese and Japanese Americans may have an advantage that will prove resistant to acculturation. This is that compared to Hawaiian whites, Hawaiian Japanese had a large spatial/verbal gap which was true even for the offspring of American- born parents. This difference, whether genetic or not, is not great. Therefore, no genetic superiority can be supposed for Asian Americans. Motivation and opportunity, specifically motivation, can stand for all non- IQ factors producing achievement.
4.070 Frey, Jeffrey, and William Finan. "Engineering Education in   Japan: A Career- Long Process." Engineering Education 81 (JulyAugust 1991): 466- 72.
  Describes Japanese engineering education as part of the Japanese lifelong education process. Cultural and professional approaches as well as university education and apprenticeship programs with companies are part of the engineering education process.
4.071  Fujimura- Fanselow, K. "Women's Studies and Feminist Pedagogy: Critical Challenges to Japanese Educational Values and Practices." Gender and Education 8 (October 1996): 337- 52.
  Discusses the implementation of feminist pedagogical principles and practices in women's studies programs in Japan. The data, based upon results from approximately one thousand five hundred students, reveals difficulties with women's studies teaching and with potentials for changes in existing programs. It should be easier to incorporate feminist ideas into the Japanese curriculum. Reform efforts in the educational system should also be geared to the teaching in women's studies programs. These programs should nurture a critical attitude of knowledge and social norms in women.
4.072 Fujioka, Nobukatsu. "How World War II Is Taught in Japanese   Classrooms." International Journal of Social Education 10    (Spring 1995): 12- 29.
Presents the results of the survey entitled "Teaching About World War II," which was conducted with junior high school social studies teachers in Japan. This special section commemorates the end of World War II and examines how the history of the war is taught in Japanese classrooms. Participants were 327 junior- high school social studies teachers from public and private schools who completed a questionnaire. Their lack of time was cited as a serious problem for them. They viewed Japan's role in World War II as aggressive in spite of the contrary opinion of politicians. In spite of the atomic bombing they were more concerned with Japan's cruelties than with the damage that the country suffered. The teachers suggested many different types of teaching strategies about Japan's wartime activities.
4.073 _____________, and Bunpot Suwannaprasert. "Japanese  Mathematics Curriculum Outcomes." Journal of Educational Research 88 (July/August 1995): 372- 77.
  A taxonomy for classifying educational outcomes was devised in 1988. The four general outcomes that students should achieve in every subject are 1. general skills, 2. Attitudes, interests, and appreciations, 3. knowledge, and 4. Intellectual abilities and skills.  A list of seventy- one general statements of outcomes was expected to result from Suwannaprasert's 1992 study. Expected outcomes of the elementary school mathematics curriculum should be considered important by large, diverse groups of individuals. This study was designed to determine the perceptions of five concerned groups with mathematics backgrounds about outcomes for the elementary school mathematics curriculum in Japan. Professors of education viewed the expected outcomes in the category of attitudes, interests, and appreciations as most important. Scientists, mathematicians, and engineers considered general skills as less important than outcomes in other categories. Mathematics educators placed more importance on expected outcomes in the category of general skills than all other groups did. The existing elementary school mathematics curriculum emphasizes knowledge and intellectual abilities and skills and excludes general skills, attitudes, interests and appreciations. For this reasons the existing gap in the elementary school mathematics curriculum in attitudes, interests, appreciations, and general skills needs to be bridged.
4.074 Fukuzawa, Rebecca Erwin. "The Path to Adulthood According to Japanese Middle Schools." Journal of Japanese Studies 20
   (Winter 1994): 61- 86.
Discusses instruction for nonacademic and academic activities which create pedagogical and developmental contradictions. Examines lifestyle management and academic instruction in Japanese middle schools as compared with the holistic teaching of the elementary schools and the text- centered high schools. It is the middle schools that emphasize the development of the whole person. Middle schools have developed many disciplinary activities to help students develop a disciplined, well- organized lifestyle. In the middle school years there is a need to cultivate good study habits. Japanese teachers feel that discipline is personal. They strive to achieve a caring relationship. Social, emotional, and moral training activities take up more time in Japanese middle schools than in American middle schools. In Japan, personal development is closely related to one's social role. Japanese middle schools provide more lifestyle guidance than American schools. There is more emphasis on the family life of students. Describes punishment and correctional methods and the use of peer control with discussion samples. Middle schools are the reflection of cultural norms.
4.075 Fuhrman, Susan H. "What Can We Learn From TIMSS- Repeat?"  NCTM News Bulletin 37 (January/February 2001): 1,6.
  The 1999 repeat of the 1995 Third International Mathematics and Science Study known as TIMSS- Repeat provided another evaluation of eighth grade students' mathematics and science performance. American students were in the middle of the international ranking and Asian students were above the international average. This survey provided information about curriculum, instructional practices, and characteristics of students, teachers and schools. American students ranked higher than the national average in fractions and numbers. Students in all countries expressed a desire to have teachers explain problems more in class. Teachers in other countries than the United States tended to have degrees in mathematics while American teachers tended to have more degrees in education instead of mathematics.
4.076 Furuhata, Hamako. "Assessment of Japanese Students' Perception Toward Traditional Methods vs. the Natural Approach and Total Physical Response Methods of Learning English." Ph.D. dissertation. University of Idaho, 1996.
  Japanese students' perception toward traditional methods versus the Natural Approach and Total Physical Response methods of learning English are studied here. The author also sought to study Japanese students' learning styles. Gender, age, and academic achievement were also taken into consideration. Results showed that Japanese students preferred the innovative methods rather than the traditional methods of learning English. Older students favored the traditional methods more. Kinesthetic learning in groups was preferred by the Japanese students. Gender preferences varied slightly but both groups, on the whole, preferred to work with both genders.
4.077 Fuson, Karen C., et al.   "Achievement Results For Second and Third Graders Using the Standards- Based Curriculum Everyday Mathematics." Journal For Research in Mathematics Education 31 (May 2000): 277- 95.
  Describes and compares the achievement levels of Japanese versus American students using Everyday Mathematics (EM), which was developed to incorporate ideas from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Standards. Also describes the various efforts that are underway to improve the mathematics achievement of American students. These include such things as the Chicago School Mathematics Project. Activities were established to make aspects of mathematics meaningful to the students. Provides an extensive discussion of the Everyday Mathematics program.
4.078 Garner, Ginger. "The Power of Poetry- Combining English Composition and Physical Education." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66 (May/June 1995): 9- 10.
  Discusses Japanese haiku poetry and its unending potential for integration with physical education. The application of the movement concepts which are generated from haiku creates an optimal environment for learning. Haiku poetry is suited to all age groups.  Very young children can act out their interpretation of haiku and older ones can create their own haiku.  The poems stimulate students to use their imaginations and to integrate English poetry and prose with physical education. This will foster cooperative learning and positive group and individual communication .
4.079 George, Paul S. The Japanese Secondary School: A Closer Look. Columbus, Oh.: National Middle School Association, National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1995. Presents findings from a case study of twelfth grade students in a Japanese public general high school as well as from visits to twelve other secondary schools.  Subjects discussed include group citizenship, examinations, academic ability and individualism. Describes different types of Japanese high schools and gives an overview of the twelfth grade curriculum.

V. Supplementary Schools, Problems and Reforms
Return to Table of Contents

The "juku," or cram schools, and "exam hell" are blamed for the bullying and the high suicide rate of Japanese youth.  Students in Japan's schools who do not achieve or are not part of the homogeneous culture are subjected to prejudice, discrimination,    and in some cases severe physical abuse.  A shorter school week with a reduction in Saturday classes has been implemented. This has resulted in a decline in achievement and in a more relaxed attitude towards leisure in both children and parents. The last decade up until the present shows a rise in truancy and delinquency. Although many strides have been made, discrimination against women and minorities still remains a serious problem.  The exceptionally high standards and achievement seen in Japanese elementary and secondary schools gives way to Japanese universities which are considered "leisure lands." Acceptance at a Japanese university almost always assures graduation with virtually no effort on the part of students.  Foreign students and Japanese students, including those from Asia, are much more likely to study at Western universities. This may be a response to recent efforts at internationalization and globalization.
5.001 Ahl, David H. "Japanese Cramming Schools Leave Little Time for Play." Creative Computing 10 (August 1984): 78.
  The juku give students an extra edge in the examination race. It is felt by some that there is something wrong with the regular education system if the juku are necessary but one high- ranking Japanese education official felt that "juku are necessary in order to get the best out of people."  Documents the fact that more than 60 percent of Japanese junior high school students attended juku cram schools during the summer instead of having a summer vacation. The yobiko are preparatory schools for senior high school students which prepare them for university entrance. Some yobiko prepare students exclusively for Tokyo University or "Todai." Students who once failed the university examination are called "ronin," or masterless samurai, and are free to make another attempt. The question is posed as to the effectiveness of the regular school system if so many students attend these juku supplementary schools.
5.002 "All Work and No Play Has Japan's Students Striving to Enjoy Free Day."Chicago Tribune (September 11, 1992): Evening 1:3.
    Discusses the proposed one Saturday a month off from school, a government policy which attempted to give some relief to Japan's workaholic children.
5.003 Altbach, Philip G., and Yoshikazu Ogawa. "Introduction."   Higher Education 43 (January 2002): 1- 6.
Introduces articles which discuss the outlook for Japanese educational reform in the twenty first century, and the influence of the United States on this reform during the Second World War. Massification has been the hallmark of the last half century. With the beginning of the twenty- first century Japanese universities, along with those of other countries face accountability, financial problems and discontent with academe. Japanese universities need to evolve into student- centered institutions. They must respond to the demands of the market. Internationalization has encouraged immigration which Japanese society is not necessarily open to. Also discusses current problems regarding Japanese educational reform. Speculates on the expansion and diversification of the Japanese educational system. The corporate structure of universities were subject to change.
5.004 Amano, Ikuo. Education and Examination in Modern Japan.  Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1990.
  States that moral values in Japanese education stem from Confucianism. The current Japanese examination system did not exist in pre- modern times. Presents an extensive history of the Japanese examination system and school system. The examination system is said to be partially due to a shortage of colleges. Looks at Japan's educational and societal problems as they relate to her examination system.  Japan's examination system is compared with that of Germany and France. Also discusses the history of the preparatory school and qualifying examinations for all professions, in Japan and elsewhere. Also presents a history of Japanese educational reforms. "Examination hell" may also be due in part to visiting Western scholars.
5.0041 Anderson, Alun. "Japanese Education: Further Iteration Towards Reform." Nature 321 (May 1, 1986): 6.
  Discusses resistance to educational reform efforts. Central criticisms of the Japanese universities are that they are too inflexible, too homogeneous and that they do not make a contribution to the international research community which is commensurate with Japan's status as a world power. They resist change and do not sufficiently influence educational policy. The solution to the latter problem would be to establish a University Council. A credit system could be used by students to allow them to transfer between faculties at universities. The ratio of graduate students to undergraduates in Japan is the lowest of all the developed countries. There is a lack of technical backup at universities. Many technical chores are carried out by non- technical people. The length of time it takes to complete a PhD degree is too long. Postdoctoral fellowships should be made more readily available. The role of the joshu, or research assistant needs to be look at more carefully.
 
5.0042 ______________. "Japanese Education: Obsession With Exam Results." Nature 320 (April 17, 1986): 566.
  The Sunday Mainichi prints the names of all 6000 successful applicants to Tokyo University. The Weekly Asahi lists twenty- five pages of examination results including pages and pages of statistics of the relative performance of the nation's high schools. There was resistance to educational reform efforts. Test scores are collected and published. The newspapers provide lists of schools which send students to Tokyo University. A quarter of all Tokyo University students come from just eight high schools, six of them are private. Successful candidates to the top schools average three hours each evening at cram schools in addition to two and a half hours of home study. Ema, or thin boards on which prayers are written are placed in large numbers at Yushima Tenjin, a famous Shinto shrine near Tokyo University. Some prayers are thanks. Magazine articles are also published showing from where the top Japanese Ministries recruit their employees.
5.005 Arita, Eriko. "Curriculum Changes Draw Concern, Mixed Reactions." Japan Times (March 26, 2002):Available:Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
  States that the relaxed education system will have hazardous effects on the academic achievements of Japan's students. Tracking has been introduced. A new curriculum for elementary and junior high schools has been introduced with a decreased workload. Standardized tests have confirmed a decline in academic performance. Many attribute this not to the relaxed curriculum but rather to a change in attitudes towards learning among students. Parents were increasingly allowing students to play computer games on their free days after the installation of the five- day school week. Parents are also subscribing less to magazines and newspapers, which has contributed towards a decline in reading comprehension. Students are less likely to read for pleasure. They are becoming more impatient.

5.006 Arthur, Linda L.  "Do or Die: Educational Pressure and Teenage Suicide in Japan."  Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Reading Forum, Georgia, December 11, 1990. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 332906)
The decade of the eighties saw intense educational pressure for Japanese students, especially adolescents.  This paper includes a critique of the Japanese education system by Westerners and a discussion about school pressure, school violence and teenage suicide. Statistics are given and a study on teenage suicide is presented.
5.007 Asano, Makoto. "School Reform, Human Rights, and Global Education." Theory Into Practice 39 (Spring 2000): 104- 10.
States that Japanese students are exhibiting many symptoms of psychological and social problems. Historical aspects of   global education are presented along with the influence of the corporate culture. Student relationships are affected by community relationships. They began to be more open in their relationships with others. Teaching and learning now includes aggressive wartime activities in Japan and discrimination against Koreans. Global education will play a major part in the educational reform process. There is a desire to produce a "participatory" school. In this special issue on global education, school reform in Japan is investigated for its human rights and global aspects. Provides a brief historical summary of global and human rights education in Japan. Educational changes and innovations which sprang up in the 1980s and 1990s included student self- government, enhanced student interpersonal relationships, increased self- esteem of students (also related to their future views), improved decision making, and new learning and teaching methods. Recent developments in school reform are considered for their global influences and their influence on educational practices in other countries.
5.008 Asonuma, Akihiro. "Finance Reform in Japanese Higher Education." Higher Education 43 (January 2002): 109- 26.
  Focuses on finance reforms at the national universities which receive the vast majority of government subsidies. Discusses the reforms that have been changing Japanese university finance to the private higher education sector, and to national universities, where large amounts of government support is allocated. Discusses how private and national universities compete for financial resources. More outside funds from the government are becoming available. There is a stronger emphasis on institutional autonomy. Individual faculty members and universities had to compete for funds from industries. The funding for national and private universities and these universities' roles need to be reexamined in the context of the entire Japanese higher education system.
5.009 Baldwin, Stephen E.  "Choosing From an Expanded Menu." Journal of Policy Analysis & Management 12 (Winter 1993): 200- 202.
Discusses the "juku," or the Japanese education supplement programs, (here defined as "Justifiable Universal Knowledge Upgrading), and their ability to boost the academic performance of elementary and secondary school students.
5.010 Barr, Cameron W. "Teachers Tested by Unruliness- and Japan's Ills." Christian Science Monitor (March 8, 1999): 1- 4.
  The Japanese educational system is now struggling to educate students to succeed in international settings and to exhibit individual creativity. Details the collapse of classroom discipline and learning in Japanese classrooms by citing examples from individual teachers. This has brought a grim satisfaction to the Japan Teachers Union, which has for a long time argued for education reform. The Union wanted to reduce class size, build better school facilities and reform the curriculum, gearing it to problem solving rather than to rote memorization. The rising divorce rate and innovations such as the Internet create problems for social communication. Most teachers are convinced that "classroom collapse" is due to the problems with the educational system.
5.011 Berliner, David C. "Educational Reform in an Era of   Disinformation." Paper presented at the annual meeting of     the  American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education,   San Antonio, Texas, 1992.
States that misinformation about Japanese education should not influence educational reform in the United States. Problems with the American educational system are addressed, such as low IQ and standardized test scores, low academic achievement, overly expensive schools, and low science and mathematics achievement. The author feels that many reform efforts will create greater disparity in schools. He feels that goals should include more preschool and school readiness programs with equal access, and  increases in teacher salaries and school funding.
5.012 Beyond Educational Reform: Bringing Teachers Back In. Buckingham [England]; Bristol, Pa., U.S.A.: Open University Press, 1997.
  States that there is a need for teachers to have a strong voice in educational reform by emphasizing professional development and thus preventing burnout and other problems. Teachers need to have a say in curriculum standards. Schools need to have a more flexible curriculum. Collaboration between teachers and externally located researchers in faculties of education is suggested.
5.013 Bossy, Steve. "Academic Pressure and Impact on Japanese    Students." M.A. thesis. McGill University, 1997.
   Discusses the tremendous pressures Japanese students are put under in order to achieve academically. Also discusses  the cultural, social and economic sources of this pressure. Descriptive narrative accounts of student's experiences are given.
5.014 ____________. "Academic Pressure and Impact on Japanese Students." McGill Journal of Education 35 (Winter 2000): 71- 89.
  The author reiterates previously explained information about pressures in the Japanese educational system, especially the university entrance examinations. The cultural, social and economic factors for such pressures are examined as well as the effect of these pressures on the well- being of Japanese students. These school pressures are said to be related to cheating on examinations, bullying, and teenage suicide. Pressures which come from parents, teachers, peers, and the society are discussed. Parents are not all aware of the dept of harm that they expose their children to. Many Japanese students experience tremendous hardship. The author feels that the Japanese society and its culture are the most overwhelming sources of the intense pressures on students. In Japan there are no alternative means to an honorable and prosperous life other than by academic achievement.
5.015 Bracey, Gerald W. "The Japanese Education System is a Failure, Say Some Japanese." Phi Delta Kappan 79 (December 1997): 328- 30.
  An editorial in the The Daily Yomiuri, an English language daily newspaper was fairly harsh in its criticism of Japan's schools. A decentralized system with more options was suggested. The educational system is said to have failed to enhance a spirit of independence in students. Japanese students who go to foreign countries do not normally compete with top- level foreigners. They do not have an international viewpoint. Japanese students often cannot think for themselves. Cultural and artistic sensibility is often not developed in schoolchildren. Discusses the claims of some Japanese commentators that Japan's educational system is a failure. Comments on the need for Japan's schools to focus more on originality, creativity, independence, social awareness, culture and society. Speculates about how representative the Japanese sample is in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Explores the failures and successes of the Japanese educational system for Asians in the United States and in Asia and relates them to cultural and social factors. Outlines the basic problems of the Japanese educational system as they are mentioned in numerous other places. States that the "smart gene" attributed to Asian students is a product of cultural and family background factors, rather than solely innate abilities. Give statistics on levels of educational achievement for Asian children and parents living in different cultural environments, showing the overall influences of heredity, attitude, and environment on achievement.

5.016 Bremner, Brian. "Japan Can't Get School Reform Right, Either." Business Week 3780 (April 29, 2002): 29- 30. Available:Lexis Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
  Discusses the implications of the reduced core curriculum and reduced hours of schooling for Japanese children. These educational changes were implemented on April 1,2002. In spite of these reforms, it is felt that problems in the Japanese educational system still remain. These problems are more at the university level than at the elementary and secondary school levels. Japanese parents are very concerned that the Saturday off will result in declining educational standards. Once reforms are in place, basic educational skills will matter but there will be a need for problem solving and self- expression. It is felt that if Japan does not improve the caliber of its university graduates she will decline in global competitiveness.

5.017 Brender, Alan. "In Japan, Education for Koreans Stays Separate and Unequal." Chronicle of Higher Education 47 (February 9, 2001): A,40.
  Koreans living in Japan are part of two educational systems, one for North Koreans and one for South Koreans. Discusses the problems which Koreans living in Japan face with the Japanese educational system and the troubled history of Koreans in Japan. The Korean school system was established in 1945 in Japan. Eighty percent of Korean students attend Japanese schools. When these students are sixteen years old they have to register as aliens in Japan. However, the Korean schools allow Koreans to keep their heritage. Korean schools are not recognized by the Japanese Ministry of Education. Graduates of these schools must take the same examinations as Japanese high- school dropouts for entrance to Japanese universities. There are ethnic and cultural conflicts between the two groups. Korean students find it very difficult to gain admission to Japanese national universities.
5.018  ____________. "Japan Tries to Reform How It Trains Lawyers." Chronicle of Higher Education 48 (February 15, 2002): A,47- A,49.
  Law has become the most popular major at many universities in Japan. Many students study law just for the sake of getting an undergraduate degree. Undergraduates with two years of college were formerly allowed to take the national bar examination and begin a practice. Compared to the United States, Japan has a great shortage of lawyers. Japanese people take few conflicts to courts which do not award large sums for damages. Japanese law students who passed the national examinations may have dismal academic records which they did not need to worry about. Passing the national bar examination was the only qualification for law practice. Discusses the reform law of December 2001 which enforced the recommendations of a Justice System Reform Council to broaden Japanese undergraduate law school reform. Also discusses differences in Japanese and American legal systems, undergraduate enrollment, and student opinions. The new system will be modeled upon graduate legal education in the United States. Under the old system, there were no law schools in Japan. Training was primarily by apprenticeship at the undergraduate level. The bar examination would also be rewritten and two examinations would be the option.
5.019 Brooks, Jennifer. "Japan Turns to Reforming Schools." United Press International (May 27, 1999): Available:Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
  Discusses the intention to instill more creativity in Japanese students and to scale back the Japanese educational curriculum by 30 percent. Research skills will now be taught. School subjects will be integrated with worldly issues. The content of textbooks will be changed. It is hoped that efforts to decrease student pressures will curb school violence and bullying. It is felt that all of Japan's social institutions should be examined.
5.020 "Can These Agencies Jell?" Nature 390 (November 27, 1997): 319.
States that the impending merger of the Science and Technology Agency (STA) with the Ministry of Education (Monbusho) has met with little opposition in spite of the dissimilarities of the two agencies. This merger is the most radical reform of Japan's public sector science system in decades. It was said that the problems in the university research system stem from "a sclerotic combination of conservatism, favoritism, dead wood and inbreeding in the universities," and also by the policies of Monbusho bureaucrats. A benefit of the merger would be increased objective research assessment to be introduced by the STA as opposed to their "self- evaluation."

5.021 Cave, Peter. "Educational Reform in Japan in the 1990s: 'Individuality' and Other Uncertainties." Comparative Education 37 (May 2001): 173- 91.
  Examines the significance of the reforms which were planned for the primary and secondary sectors. The reforms of the 1990s have been influenced by Western ideas. These reforms and policy measures are analyzed. Interview and visits to Japanese schools took place. Some want more emphasis on patriotism. Others want more creativity, smaller classes and more resources used. Attempts have been made to understand the school problems such as bullying. Business wants more decentralization in the curriculum.   Discusses educational reforms which have been more geared to individuality and freedom of choice in the curriculum than to institutional reform. The introduction of the five- day school week has been a major reform of the 1990s along with major curriculum revision. Diversification in the curriculum and a multi- track system have also been considered. Many of these reform ideas have had little impact. It was projected that the least change would be seen at the high school level, although this is where the most change is needed. It is projected that the junior high school level will see the most change. The author feels that the changes of the 1990s introduced new degrees of pedagogical freedom and encouraged exploratory, self- directed learning.  These reforms favor a progressive rather than a neoliberal agenda. Parents still cannot choose between schools. Japanese education will attract foreign attention because it has maintained a different and distinctive course.

5.022 Censoring History: Citizenship and Memory in Japan, Germany, and the United States. Edited by Laura Hein and Mark Selden. Armonk, N.Y.:  M.E. Sharpe, c2000.
  This collection of essays focuses on how textbooks in the above countries treat the events of World War II, and how this treatment influences national identity and international understanding. Chapters relating to Japan include such topics as Japan's attempt to "correct" history and the rise of nationalism, Japan's textbook lawsuits, legacies of Japanese colonialism, and Japan and America's teaching regarding the war in the Pacific.

5.023 Coleman, Joseph. "Rebellious Youth Worry Puzzled Japanese  Parents: While Adults Debate the Cause, Turned- Off Teens   Are Dropping Out." Detroit News (August 22, 1999): A,16.
   States that Japan is distraught over its troubled youth.   School absenteeism is on the rise, as is violence, bullying, juvenile delinquency, suicide and prostitution. Japanese teenagers are having trouble making friends. They are not communicating with their parents and they are losing respect for school and their families.  The article profiles one such student, Kinichi Kuwabara, the son of an elementary school teacher, who dropped out of school in the fourth grade. He lasted one week in junior high school. The Japanese government, earlier in 1999 issued a 580 page report regarding its young people. Arrests of Japanese teens between fourteen and nineteen were at 14 percent in 1997 and rose to 17 percent in 1998. School refusers like Kinichi have risen to 2 percent of the population. The article speculates on the probable causes for Japan's troubled children.  
5.024 "Colleges Get Free Reign in FY 2004." Financial Times (March 28, 2002): Available: Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
  States that all ninety- nine universities in Japan will become self- governing entities in fiscal 2004. This greater autonomy will allow for more discretion in hiring and in financial matters. Faculty members and other employees will no longer be considered government employees. They will also be allowed to hold positions in private business. University employees in executive positions are allowed to be non- Japanese. They will have far greater authority than they do now. The universities will be allowed more flexibility regarding curricula.
5.025 Concar, David. "Examination Hell." New Scientist 140       (October 2, 1993): 51- 53.
   The author states that the United Kingdom is striving to  make its educational system more like Japan's because the competitiveness as well as the uniformity and conservative approach is admired. However, it is acknowledged that the intense competition has had an effect on equality- an ideological key of the Japanese educational system. It is feared that there will be a lack of innovative thinkers. Discusses some fee- paying secondary schools which put teachers and students under intense pressure. Failure in the university examination system creates extreme trauma and despair for many students.
5.026 Cox, James. "How 5 Rebels Would Reshape Japan." USA Today    (February 10, 1997): B,3.
Japan found itself downcast and gloomy. Some have called the country a dictatorship run by bureaucrats. Discusses reforms in business, the economy and schools, the latter of which have been accused of dealing in "psychological castration." Most Japanese will not undertake a task where there is a risk of failure. Bureaucrats are more powerful than Japan's elected Parliament. They are also the architects of the education system. A well- known Japanese psychiatrist, Masao Miyamoto, who worked in the Ministry of Health and Welfare for many years, feels that talent, ideas and creativity are chopped away and the brightest minds in Japan cannot compete with the software geniuses in America's Silicon Valley. He feels that there is a disdain for intellectual curiosity in Japan. Japanese people are afraid of change. In Japanese schools children who are different are taunted by their peers until they leave. Miyamoto recommends more vacations, the elimination of half of Japan's thousands of regulations, and doing away with administrative guidance.
5.027 "Crammed Full." The Economist 301 (December 20, 1986): 50- 51.
Prime Minister Nakasone foresaw the needs of the 1990s and beyond which involved incorporating more independent and creatively minded people into the workforce. This needs to be combined with the concepts of Japanese discipline and morality. In the year before April 1986, 215 Japanese schoolchildren committed suicide. More than half of these children were between fifteen and eighteen years of age. This article chronicles the rise in suicide, psychological problems, school violence, and truancy. It is predicted that there will be a greater need for more creative expression and independent thinking among Japanese students.
5.028 Cummings, William K. "From Knowledge Seeking to Knowledge Creation:The Japanese University's Challenge." Higher Education 27 (June 1994): 399- 415.
  States that the Japanese university system is stable, thereby encouraging conformity and stifling creativity and initiative. It is felt that Japanese educational reforms should introduce a more flexible curriculum with a less traditional focus. Graduate education should be expanded, the chair system should be broken down, and university- industry collaboration should be expanded. These initiatives are still seen as inadequate.
5.029 _____________, et al. Changes in the Japanese University: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Praeger, 1979.
A former member of the Tokyo Institute of Technology discusses some of the problems in Japanese universities. These are the subservience of education to politics, the viewing of education only as a tool to develop the economy, too little emphasis on culture and morality, and a lack of educational planning. These essays trace Japan's educational problems from a historical viewpoint, present the status quo, and give ideas for future improvement.

5.030 Cyranoski, David. "Japanese Labs Could Merge in Drive for Sharper Focus." Nature 415 (January 24, 2002): 352- 55.
Discusses the proposed merger of several of Japan's leading government laboratories and research institutes into a single structure. This structure would be the focal point for quality research, reform in the Education Ministry, and shared resources.
5.031 Darrach, Brad. "The Big Picture." Life 17 (February 1994): 14- 15.
  This article discusses the pupils at the Daini Hikari  School in suburban Tokyo who wore only shorts and shoes to school regardless of the weather. The school housed 375 kindergarten children ages two to six. This was an effort to "toughen" this generation of children who were "weakened by affluence." They rarely became ill and appeared very happy.
5.032 Day, Takako. "An Unfortunate 'Slant' On Teaching Japanese In the U.S." San Francisco Chronicle (December 18, 1991): A, 21:1.
The Japanese language is becoming more and more popular among Americans. In 1990 Japanese was taught at 450 American universities and 800 elementary and secondary schools. The author encourages primary school teachers of Japanese in the United States to teach tolerance for other cultures.
5.033 Deans, Bob. "Japan: Conformity Over Individuality." Atlanta Journal Constitution (September 22, 1991): B,4.
Discusses Masaki Kaneda, a typical Japanese thirteen year old who spends sixty hours a week at school with only two days off a month. Masaki's mother frequently visits his school. His teacher visited his home the way all Japanese teachers do for every student at the beginning of each spring term. Parents are expected to become familiar with course material so that they can help their children.
5.034 "Debate Rages Over Reduced Curriculum." Daily Yomiuri (May 1,2000): Available:Lexis- Nexis; ADDRESS: http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/(2000- 2002).
Discusses the 30 percent cut in the Japanese school curriculum which was slated for 2002. There is concern that this cut may impact upon the acquisition of basic skills, especially in science and mathematics. The Education Ministry's curriculum guideline is revised approximately once every decade. The 2002 revision has the slogan "fostering children's 'power to live' under pressure- free education" and will fully implement the five- day school week with a corresponding curriculum reduction.
5.035 Do, Bae Jung. "Literacy in Japan: Obstacles and Opportunities." Convergence 24 (1991): 72- 74.
There are six thousand discriminated- against Buraku communities and three million Burakumin in Japan.  The Buraku Liberation League survey showed that large numbers of people in their community did not have access to educational opportunities. As a consequence of this survey a voluntary literacy movement was started. It began with a group of people in Osaka who wanted to obtain driver's licenses.  Discusses the Buraku literacy program in Japan and the Buraku people's social and political problems which cause them to be illiterate. Also discusses literacy for Koreans in Japan. The Buraku people, or Burakumin, have virtually no fundamental human rights. The history of these people is discussed. The discrimination against them is based solely upon the occupations they hold, namely janitorial, tanning and the slaughtering of animals. A voluntary literacy movement for these people started around 1955. As of 1990, about fifteen thousand Buraku people, including many women,  were studying in about six hundred literacy classes nationwide.
5.036 ___________. "What Literacy Means for Koreans in Japan."  Convergence  24 (1991): 75- 76.
Literacy classes in Japan are attended by the Korean minority. This includes first generation Koreans brought forcibly to Japan in keeping with its colonial policy in the Korean peninsula. The number of Koreans in Japan was said to number about 670,000. Koreans in the Japanese occupation were deprived of their land, food, culture, language, and even their names.  This discrimination also caused Korean illiteracy. After the Second World War, many Korean schools were built but they were closed down. Koreans were absorbed into the Japanese school system. The Korean culture and language was not transmitted. At the International Symposium for Literacy held in Iran in 1975, The "Persepolis Declaration: Literacy as Humanization" was adopted. It provided suggestions and proposals for the problem of Korean illiteracy in Japan. Many Korean women married Japanese men and were assimilated into Japanese culture. Still more women  remained isolated in Japanese society.
5.037 Dolly, John P. "'Juku'" and the Performance of Japanese Students: An American Perspective." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Japan United States Teacher Education Consortium, Tokyo, 1992.
Outlines the role that the juku, or after school programs, play in Japanese education. Their goals, successes and shortcomings are discussed. If supplementary hours are added, Japanese students average approximately four years more schooling than their American counterparts. Entrance tests, in some cases, began to determine what is in the curriculum. The high costs of the juku contribute to educational disparities between wealthy and poor students. In spite of these drawbacks there is widespread support of the juku among parents and great sacrifices are made to be able to pay for them.
5.0371 Dolly, John P. "The Impact of Juku on Japanese Students."     Journal of Instructional Psychology 20 (December 1993):     277- 286.
Unlike America, Japanese universities base their    admissions criteria almost solely on test scores. The    university attended determines one's future job  prospects. The juku are an economic issue, with students    from wealthier families spending large sums of money to  attend them. Thus educational equality ends in secondary    schools. Japanese mothers do not work outside the home and    can therefore devote all of their efforts to promoting    their children's education. Many Japanese children are not    taught how to reason or think during the educational     process. Many educators are seeking to emulate Western    educational systems in this regard.  Although the Japanese    Educational Ministry makes the distinction between    education and test preparation, test scores alone    determine who gets into prestigious universities. Engaged    time for students along with teacher effectiveness make    for a strong student learning experience. Studies have found that students in Taiwan, China and Japan spend more hours a day in learning activities than American students do. Japanese students are geared to test taking. Japanese elementary school teachers generate more research articles in journals than university teachers do. Although there is growing concern about the economic and academic pressures of the juku, they are still widely supported by parents.
5.038 Do Rosario, Louise. "All Work and No Play." Far Eastern   Economic Review 155 (March 12, 1992): 21- 23. See 5.242

5.039 Dore, Ronald P. The Diploma Disease. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press, 1976.
  Compares the origins of Japan's school system with Great Britain's school system. Discusses the history of Japan's school structure and development. High costs in student anxiety and suffering, financial hardships, poor preparation in higher education due to laxness of universities, escalating costs for cram schools, and increasing inequality of opportunity were prevalent problems in Japan. The author contends that although there is public condemnation of the pressures, many Japanese educators feel that those students who cannot withstand them are weak human beings.
5.040 Doyon, Paul. "A Review of Higher Education Reform in Modern Japan." Higher Education 41 (June 2001): 443- 70.
  As Japan's adolescent population declines drastically, reforms previously discussed in the 1980s and before began to take shape in the 1990s. Japan's university standards are considered not up to par with those of the rest of the advanced nations. There is an increased tendency towards consumerism among Japanese adults with many adults having a different value system from their parents. Efforts at reform are reviewed going back to the past thirty years including the most recent higher educational reforms. These reforms are coming from the Ministry of Education, industry, and the universities. Japan's international image would be bolstered with an overhaul of the educational system. Her industries are in need of newer creative thinking employees. Recent reforms in the educational system succeeded in expanding the economy while often at the same time dehumanizing the people. A major overhaul of the most undesirable aspects of the system has yet to be accomplished. Ideas originally proposed by the Japan Teachers Union included the elimination of high school entrance examinations, localization of high school education and the establishment of local community colleges. The closure of two- year women's colleges would lead to colleges dedicated to lifelong learning programs. It is hoped that reform efforts will include a more humanitarian emphasis.
5.041 Duke, Benjamin C. "The Liberalisation of Japanese Educa-   tion." Comparative Education 22 (1986): 37- 45.
Chronicles the history of the Japanese educational reform movement which was given its first impetus by Prime Minister Nakasone. Respect for individuality is a primary effort in the reform movement. The Japanese government perpetuates "examination hell" by admitting new employees each year based only on examination results. Predicts that in spite of the great interest in educational reform, this reform will proceed slowly and cautiously. Predetermined plans, lengthy studies and the recommendations of the Ministry of Education will be followed.
5.042 Dunn, Ashley. "Cram Schools: Immigrants' Tools For Success." New York Times (January 28, 1995): 1.
  Describes the flourishing cram school industry which has developed in the United States, especially in Queens, New York, New Jersey, and Los Angeles. The cram school industry expanded following the migration of Koreans, Japanese and Chinese to America over the last twenty five years. Two types of cram schools have evolved in the United States, those for visiting Asian students and those for Asian- American students who will live her permanently. Many of these cram schools have been very successful, boasting of many Ivy League acceptances. Many Asian immigrants, although they had good educations and jobs in their countries, come tin America and endure many hardships to send their children to cram schools and invest in their education.   
5.043 Dunn, Kevin L. "Japanese School Refuses Admission to Black Girl." Amsterdam News (April 1, 1989): 2:1.
Racial prejudice is implicated in the cases of three high schools in Nigata, Japan which rejected black foreign exchange students.
5.044 "Educational Reform: Issues and Trends." International Labour Review 134 (1995): 753- 70.
  Examines the ways in which several countries, including Japan, are coping with educational reform at the primary and secondary levels. There is a trend towards decentralization of educational systems. Decentralization is seen as a key to better education because allows decisions to be made closer to communities and schools. In industrialized societies the strategic focus of educational reform is the development of lifelong learning through universal literacy skills. Class size may be correlated with improved teaching although this is sometimes debatable. Japan's educational system is geared to creating disciplined laborers and to maximizing the work of the lower levels of the workforce. "Creative" industries, such as software and media are much further ahead in the West than in Japan. Educational quality, teachers' salaries and class size are also discussed.
5.045 "Education's Golden Mean." Asiaweek 27 (February 16, 2001): 23.
  Discusses the decision by the Japanese Education Ministry to cut mandatory classes by 30 percent in order to promote relaxation and creativity. Some critics felt that children would become too laid back. A "back to basics" movement began. It was hoped that students would not lose interest in science and mathematics. It may be difficult to eliminate rote memorization altogether.

5.046 Efron, Sonni. "In Japan, Even Tots Must Make the Grade: Costly Tutoring Is Seen As Key to Entering Elite Kindergartens." Los Angeles Times (February 16, 1997): A, 1:4.
  Describes the "baby cram schools" which prepare children of

Japanese Glossary
Return to Table of Contents

aidagara - human interaction
aikido - non- violent form of self-defense
Ainu - indigenous Caucasians
amae - passive dependent love between mother and child
amoiyari - group cooperation and empathy
bikkuri - surprise, usually unpleasant
bundan - writing workshop
Buraku or Burakumin - Tokugawa period outcasts engaged in lower class jobs
chanoyu - traditional tea ceremonies
Chosoren - ethnic school for North Koreans
Chugakusei - middle schooler
Dantai ishiki - group consciousness
dento - tradition
deshi - apprenticeships
dorai- dry, logical and rational emotional style
dotoku - moral
Dotokujisshi yoko implementation guide for moral education
Edo bakafu - edict which ordered the attack on sight of all Western ships in 1825
Ema - small wooden tablet on which prayers are written -
enryo - self restraint, subservience of individual needs to group needs
gaijin - Westerners
gaikokujin kyoin - foreign staff
gakabatsu - elitism
gakkyu hokai - disintegrating classroom, no control by teachers
Gakkyusha - one of Japan's largest chains of jukus
gakkyuzukuri - school spirit
gakugyojoju enpitsu - pencil sets
gakurekishugi - educational credentialism
gakushu juku - remedial classes
gakushuu koukai - public research lessons
kenkyuu jugyou - attracting teachers from other parts of the country
gaman - to endure, stoicism and patience
gambare - persistence and perseverence
gambaru - diligence, pushing oneself to the limit, persistence
gasshuku - staying together at a lodging house
genki - being energetic and enthusiastic for the day
giri - obligation, determination, honor, discipline and perseverence
gokurosama deshita - thank you for your troubles
haafu - half
hachimaki - headbands
hageshii jidai - intense time in middle school years
haiku - poetry
hamaya - exorcising arrows
han - group of schoolchildren, elementary level learning groups
hancho - child group leader
hansei - whole person (related to moral education), cultivation of a reflective spirit
hansekai - meetings for deliberation and reflection in schools
hinin - beggars
hitonami - like others
ho harmony
hoiku - early childhood education and care
hoikuen - day nurseries, public day care centers full day for children from six months to six years
homurumu - homeroom group
honne - one's true feelings as opposed to tatemae or public display
hoshu juku - remedial or remediation
iemoto - guild
ijime - bullying
ikigai - children are Japanese parents' reason for living
ikinari - sudden violent outbursts over trifles as identified by
ishi - police willfulness
Isei - first generation Japanese immigrants
isshyokenmei - fighting with all one's might or self- sacrifice
Jan Ken Po Gakko - Japanese American history culture and language program
jen - benevolence or love
jihatsusei - initiative
jin - person
jinkaku - a person of status or rank
jiri ninjo - righteous principles and human feelings
jiritsu - self- reliant child
jishi - independent attitude
jishu - independence
jobiko - Joshi Eigaku Juku Women's Institute of English Studies
joshu - research assistant
juken benkyou - entrance examinations
juku - cram schools
kaizen continuous improvement down to the smallest and most detailed level, self-introspection
kaku - status or rank
kan - intuition
kanji - 2000 symbols that represent syllables used in newspapers and magazines
karoshi - overwork
katei kyoshi - private tutors
kazoku mitai nia family group (children)
Keidanren - Federation of Economic Organizations
keigo - linguistic wrapping
kejime ability to make distinctions, attention to the flow of the day
kenkyuu jugyou - research lessons
kenshu - method for teaching reading of research literature
kiai - spiritual power
kibishi - strict
kigyounai- kyouiku individual educational systems for vocational education
kikan shinji - praying holy seals

[ supplied Glossary ends here - tmciolek ]

Subject Index
Return to Table of Contents

The numbers referenced in this index refer to citation numbers, not page numbers.

Ability grouping, 1.075,
  3.025, 3.172, 4.063
Ability, innate, 1.022, 1.037,
  1.075, 1.097, 2.037, 2.203,
  2.239, 2.245, 2.266, 2.287,
  3.117, 3.247, 3.296, 4.018, 4.036, 5.052
Accountability,
  California schools, 3.029
  Japanese schools, 3.029
Achievement, academic, 2.109, 3.223
  American students, 2.081, 2.266, 3.247
  Asian Americans, 4.069
  Chinese students, 2.081, 2.266, 3.247
  cultural factors, 2.028, 2.109
  gender, effect on, 2.169
  Japanese- Canadian students, 2.213
  Japanese students, 2.081, 2.097, 2.169,
    2.170, 2.256, 2.266, 3.247
  Taiwan, 2.169
  uniform levels of, 5.052
  United States, 2.169
Adolescence, 2.115, 2.232, 3.158, 3.159
  America, 2.309
  eating problems in, 2.195
  Japan, 2.309
  parents and, 1.187,
    Japan, 1.187
sexuality, 2.139
abortion, 2.139
    teachers' beliefs about, 3.156
    United States, 1.187
Adolescents, see Adolescence
Advanced Placement Examination, 3.265
Afghan female teachers, 3.084
Aged, see Elderly
Aggressiveness,
  American, 2.275
  Japanese, 2.275
Akita Prefecture, 1.137
Alger School, 3.082
All- Japan Teachers' Union Council
  (ATU), 5.238
Alternative schools, 5.274, 5.312
  see also, Tokyo Shure
Animal experimentation, attitudes towards,
  Australia, 3.278
  Japan, 3.278
  New Zealand, 3.278
Anxiety, see Mathematics anxiety, Public
  speaking anxiety
Argumentativeness,
  American, 2.275
  Japanese, 2.275
Argumentativeness Scale, 2.275
Arima, Akito, 4.005,
  5.056, 5.192, 5.209, 5.214,
  5.250, 5.287
Asahi Gakuen School, 3.192
Asahi Shinbun, 5.267
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation,
  3.137
Asian Americans (AA's), 2.150
  cultural adjustment difficulties of, 2.150
Asian International people (AI's), 2.150
  cultural adjustment difficulties of, 2.150
Association of American Colleges and Universities
 (AAC&U's) 1998 Faculty and Curriculum Development
 Seminar on Japan, 2.127
Atmark Inter School, 3.082
Attitudes, racial, 5.070
Attribute centrality, 4.224
Autistic children, 4.299
Automobile factories,
  American, 4.030
  Japanese, 4.030
Autonomous Learner Model, 4.274
Azabu public school, 5.233
Azumi Paternalistic Value Orientation,
  1.133
Balanced thinking, 3.233
Bar examination, Japan, 5.096,
  5.107
  bias in, 1.063
Baruch, Dorothy, 1.212
Baraku people (Burakumin), 2.259,
  5.035, 5.265
    discrimination against, 5.035
Bell curve, 4.139
Betts, George, 4.274
Biotechnology, 3.115
Birthrate, Japanese, 2.309, 2.320, 5.304
Bracey Report on the Condition of
  Public Education,
    Seventh, 4.030
    Sixth, 4.031
Britain, Japanese subsidiaries
  in, 5.124
Buddhism, influence of, 2.008, 2.287, 2.300
Bullying (ijime), 4.031, 5.048, 5.089, 5.188,
 5.218, 5.230, 5.236, 5.254, 5.337, 5.343,
    Brazil, 5.218
    Norway, 5.218
    Palestine, 5.218
    South Africa, 5.218
    Sweden, 5.218
    United States, 5.218
Business and education, relationship
  of, 5.238
Business and industry, cooperation
  between, 5.248
Business, Industry, and Education
  Alliance (BIE),
    Delaware, 4.288
Business relationships, cultivating,
  2.134
Buzz Learning, 4.236
Calvinist ethics, 2.257
Canadian Cognitive Abilities Test,
  4.260
Career placement, 2.297
  Waseda University, 3.287
Central Council on Education, 5.136
Centre for Advanced Science and
  Technology Incubation (CASTI), 5.248
Characteristic Pedagogical Flow
  (CPF), 3.265
Child Behaviors Inventory, 1.194
Child care, 1.056, 1.069, 2.157
Child development, 1.013, 1.075, 1.164, 1.186, 1.187, 2.217
Child rearing, 1.092, 1.129, 4.244
  Japanese mothers, 1.131, 2.310
  Jewish mothers, 1.131
Children,
  beliefs about school performance, 2.160
  temperaments, 2.141
Children's Welfare Law, 4.300
Christ- With- Culture, 2.006
Christians, Japanese, 2.180
Citizenship, 1.174
City University of New York
  Chiyoda, Japan, in, 3.045
Classroom collapse (gakkyu hokai),
  5.144, 5.298, 5.301, 5.328
Classroom management, 1.124
Coalition forming process, 2.038
Cognitive Academic Language Learning
  Approach (CALLA), 4.208
Cognitive profiles,
  Canadian children, 4.260
  Japanese children, 4.260
Collective identity, 2.215
Collective responsibility, 5.052
College preparatory schools
 (yobiko), 3.134
Comics (Manga), 3.2851, 4.176
  biochemistry, use in teaching, 4.176
  reading, use in teaching, 4.227
  preserve personal property, use in
    teaching to, 4.290
Communication,
  American, 1.010, 1.019
  apprehension, 1.026
    America, 1.026, 1.134
    Australia, 1.026
    Japan, 1.026, 1.134
    Korea, 1.026
  Asian- Americans, 1.134
  Caucasian Americans, 1.134
  college students, 1.070
    American, 1.070, 1.086, 1.087,
1.134, 1.171, 2.090
    Japanese, 1.070, 1.086, 1.087,
1.088, 1.134, 1.171,    
    Korean, 1.070
  Confucianism, influence on, 1.034
  culture, influence on, 2.127
  gender differences in, 1.104
  international law, effects on, 2.127
  Japanese, 1.010, 1.019
  language, effects on,
    English, 1.208
    Japanese, 1.208
  non- verbal, 1.010, 2.241
    counseling students, American, 1.188
    counseling students, Japanese, 1.188
  verbal, 1.010
Communicative Collection Assisting System
  (CoCoA), 4.190
Communicator Style Measure (CSM) test,
  1.086
Company- oriented theory, 2.321
Computers, 4.099
  attitudes towards, 1.139, 2.174
    Japan, 2.174
    Sweden, 2.174
  culture and, 2.174
  educational use of, 4.212
    Japanese language instruction, 4.226
  games,
    Family Computer (Fami- Com), 4.109
Concordia College, 3.059
Conflict resolution,
  preschools, Japanese, 1.103
Conformity, 2.287
Confucianism, influence of, 1.033, 
   1.034, 2.008, 2.013, 2.040, 2.066, 
   2.120, 2.136, 2.162, 2.232, 2.233,
   2.257, 2.259, 2.287, 2.298, 3.187,
   3.188, 3.223, 3.257, 3.296, 5.004
Consortium for Cross- Cultural
  Research in Education (CCCRE),
    3.245 
Cooperative and competitive attitudes,
  1.178
Cooperative learning, 1.176, 1.177, 4.236
Corporal punishment, 5.079, 5.139,
  5.188, 5.343, 5.349
Correctional system,
  Japan, 2.069
  United States, 2.069
Counseling, 1.158
   placement, 1.118
Counselors,
  Caucasian- American, 2.121
  Japanese- American, 2.121
Course of Study for Elementary Schools in
  Japan, 2.286
Cram schools (juku), 1.184, 2.083, 3.035,
  3.134, 3.232, 3.257, 4.031,
  5.001, 5.037, 5.0371, 5.038,
  5.084, 5.085, 5.088, 5.103, 5.199,
  5.112, 5.147, 5.154, 5.191, 5.226,
  5.240, 5.242, 5.245, 5.296, 5.304,
  5.320, 5.324, 5.347, 5.350,
    see also Shadow education
  preschoolers, 5.046, 5.130, 5.244
    5.252, 5.333, 5.334
  privatization and, 5.121
  secondary school students, 5.051
  Teachers,
    salaries, 5.226
  United States, 3.067, 3.125,
    3.134, 3.237, 5.042, 5.082,
    5.147, 5.338
Creativity Thinking- Drawing Production
  Test, 1.194
Credentialist view, 2.238
Credentials, educational, 2.225, 2.234, 2.235,
  2.236, 5.077
  employment and, 2.234, 2.235, 2.236, 2.238
    American high school graduates, 2.234
    Japanese high school graduates, 2.234,
2.236
Cultural Adjustment Difficulties
  Checklist (CADC), 2.150
Cultural belief systems, parents',
  1.155 
Cultural codes, 2.201
Cultural nationalism, 2.162
Culture,
  American, 2.208, 2.209, 2.117
  analytical approach to (West), 2.037
  Australian, 2.223
  collective orientations, 2.045
  foreign languages and, 2.216
  holistic approach to (East), 2.037
  individualistic orientations, 2.045
  Japanese, 2.018, 2.117, 2.208, 2.209,
    2.223
    Christianity, 2.180
    emotional patterns of, 2.219
    homogeneity, 2.049
  literature, portrayed in, 2.091
  play, interaction with, 2.175
Culture clash, American- Japanese, 2.004
Curriculum, 3.025, 5.061, 5.179
  college, 5.095, 5.179
    internationalizing, 4.184
  diversity in, 5.280
  flexible, 5.028, 5.099, 5.259,
    5.262
  freedom of choice in, 5.021
  national standards, 2.008, 2.085,
    3.253, 4.006, 5.012,
    5.118, 5.199 
    Germany, 3.253
    Japan, 3.253, 4.030,
4.063, 4.244, 5.199, 5.280
elementary school, 4.065
kindergarten, 4.110
nursery school, 4.110
reform, 5.136
  primary schools, 2.218
  reduced, 5.016, 5.034, 5.045,
    5.076, 5.144, 5.186
  reforms, 5.346
  revisions, 5.273
  science and mathematics, 3.266
Customs, Japanese, 1.095
Dai- ichi Preschool, 1.113
Daini Hikari School, 5.031
Day care, 5.294
Day care centers, 1.038, 1.170, 4.014
Daycroft School, 3.212
Debating, 1.083, 1.130, 2.031
  American students, 1.130
  Japanese students, 1.130
Decentralization, 2.244
Delinquency, 2.232, 5.079, 5.080, 5.119,
  5.173
Demonstrator Form of the Torrance
  Test of Creative Thinking, 3.271
Depression, mental,
  Chinese college students, 2.080
  Japanese college students, 2.080
Deviant behavior, 2.066
Differential Aptitude Test- Spatial
  Relations, 2.110
Diligence, 2.124, 2.245, 2.257
Dimensions of Self- Concept (DOSC),
  Form S, 1.153
Dinkins, David, Mayor, 3.229
Disabled, mentally, 5.323
Discipline, school, 1.157, 2.101,
  2.205, 2.273, 2.308, 3.025, 3.245,
  5.010, 5.255, 5.258, 5.298, 5.323,
  see also Education, preschool, discipline
Discrimination, 2.318,
  gender, 5.052, 5.101
    school, 5.101
    workplace, 5.054, 5.101, 5.102,
5.106
  minority groups, 2.287, 5.140, 5.272
    Ainu, 2.136
    Burakumin, 2.136, 5.140, 5.314
    Koreans, 2.136, 5.140, 5.156, 5.177
Diversity,
  language, 4.157
  racial, 4.157
    prejudice and,
5.043, 5.113
Divorce rates, Japan, 3.240
Dress code, 3.075
Dropouts, school, 5.065, 5.105,
  5.143
Earthquake, see Kobe, Japan, earthquake
Eating disorders, 5.195
Education,
  adolescents, 3.089
  adult, 1.195, 2.063, 2.075, 
    2.294, 2.316, 2.318, 2.319, 4.272
    discrimination, alleviating, 2.318
    women, role of, 1.195
  afterschool academic
    activities, 3.253
  alternative,
    free spaces, 4.183
    home schooling, 4.183
  American, 2.034, 2.042, 3.188
  American influences in Japan, 1.093
  American programs in Japan,
    3.040, 3.046, 3.179
  apprenticeships, 3.236, 4.146,
    4.162, 4.192, 4.298
  architectural sites and, 2.243
  art, 2.145, 2.179, 
    3.064, 3.141, 3.194, 4.007, 4.173
    Australian, 4.158
    self- regulated learning in
Japanese and American, 4.121
  arts education policy, 4.173
  Asian, 2.034
    cultural origins, 2.037
  Asians, 5.015
  Asians in the United States, 5.015
  bilingual and bilingualism,
    3.108, 3.132, 3.147
  biochemical, 4.125
  centralized, 2.308, 3.105
  centralized Education Ministry,
    3.021, 3.025, 4.012
  chemistry, 4.046
  compulsory, 3.240,
    England, 3.240
    Japan, 3.240
  continuing, 2.263
  correspondence courses, 4.057
  creativity in, 1.060, 1.173, 2.096,
    2.097, 2.123, 2.129, 2.205, 2.242,
    2.287, 2.309, 3.134, 3.227, 4.103,
    4.119, 4.122, 4.126, 5.019, 5.027,
    5.083, 5.229, 5.232, 5.273, 5.280,
    5.316, 5.335
    American college students, 3.227
    Japanese college students, 3.227,
4.030
Keio University's Shonan Fujisawa
  campus, 5.071, 5.072
  cultural aspects, 2.168, 2.224, 2.232,
    2.286, 2.287, 2.299, 2.307, 2.313
  deaf, 4.129, 4.276
  death, 4.128
  decentralized, 3.105
  democracy in, 2.112, 4.147
  early childhood,
    America, 1.075, 3.151,
    Japan, 1.075, 1.189, 1.191
3.151, 4.110, 5.294
facilities, 4.300 
social studies, 2.025
  egalitarianism, 2.047, 2.190, 2.231,
    2.285, 5.221
  elementary,
    Japan, 1.184, 2.154, 4.203
small groups in, 4.283
  elitism in, 3.248
  engineering, 4.070, 4.187, 5.247
  ethnographic studies of, 4.148
  expression, 1.173
  family influences, 3.240
  finance, 5.206
  foreign aid to, 3.058
  foreign influences on, 2.017
  gardens, use of, 2.192
  gender, influence of, 2.169, 2.226
  geography, 3.099, 4.178,
    reforms, 4.178
  Germany, 4.249
  gifted, 4.050, 4.063
    Britain, 1.129
    China, 2.267
    Japan, 1.129, 2.267
    Taiwan, 2.267 
  global, 5.224
    at Hiroshima University and
the University of Minnesota,
5.224
  graduate, 2.227, 4.187, 5.028
    Britain, 2.227
    creativity in, 4.187
    France, 2.227
    Germany, 2.227
    Japan, 2.227
    United States, 2.227
  Great Britain, 1.017, 5.229,
  guidance and counseling,
    4.147, 4.266, 5.167
  higher,
    Germany, 3.257, 3.293
    instructors (sensei), Heidelberg
College (Sappora, Hokkaido
Japan), 3.257  
    Japan, 2.065, 2.130, 2.135,
3.256, 3.293, 5.299
administration, 1.107
cultural influences, 2.135
finance, 2.007, 5.008
gender roles, 2.317
non- university sector, 4.001
occupational sector, role of, 2.007
patronage system, 2.251
reform, 1.107, 5.053, 5.299,
remedial education, 5.185
research activities, 2.135
teachers, 4.062
women, 2.003
See also Women, education of
    social role of, 2.261
cultural influences on the, 2.261
  history, 1.093, 2.017, 2.119, 2.129,
    2.232, 2.256, 2.300, 2.313,
    5.222, 5.238
  homogeneity, 5.052
  human rights, 5.007
  independent thinking, 2.205, 5.027
  individualism, 2.129, 4.147
  individualized, 2.104, 3.172, 3.296,
    4.030, 4.063
  individuality, 2.064, 2.104, 4.122,
    5.223, 5.238, 5.261, 5.264, 5.273,
    5.284
  international, 2.197
    United States and Japan, 3.272
  internationalization (kokusaika), 2.044,
    2.142, 2.162, 3.096, 3.145, 3.177,
    3.272, 3.286, 3.296,
    5.007, 5.123, 5.155, 5.163, 5.170,
    5.171, 5.238, 5.257, 5.284, 5.308
  internship courses, 4.057
  internships, 4.092
  Japan, 4.248, 5.229
    cultural origins, 2.037
  Japanese, 2.203, 2.313, 3.188
    cultural transmission, as agent of,
2.044
    hypermedia uses, 4.213  
    joint educational ventures
between American colleges
and Japanese groups, 3.167
    small group activities, 4.283
Japan, 4.165
United States, 4.283
    library science, 4.132, 4.259
  Japanese- American students,
    parental involvement, 1.011
  kindergarten, 1.156, 1.173, 1.189
    music in, 1.181
    Western and Christian influences,
1.181
  Kobe, Japan, earthquake, 2.026
  laborers, 5.219
  lifelong, 2.063, 2.066, 2.133, 2.165, 2.173,
    2.197, 2.204, 2.211, 2.242, 2.263, 4.070, 4.167,
    5.077, 5.124, 5.238, 5.284, 5.288
    institutions devoted to, 2.263
  media and information technology,
    (IT), 4.258
  media use, 4.111, 4.267 
    creativity and, 4.103
  memorization, 1.021, 2.097, 2.205, 2.221,
    3.234, 4.122, 5.233, 5.319
  minorities, 5.219
  moral, 1.008, 1.127, 1.184,
    2.013, 2.025, 2.034, 2.037, 2.040, 2.101, 2.102,
    2.112, 2.113, 2.118, 2.123, 2.129, 2.136,
    2.140, 2.189, 2.198, 2.224, 2.229, 2.240, 2.286, 2.330,
    3.023, 3.025, 3.075, 4.012,
    4.057, 4.063, 5.004, 5.121, 5.238,
    5.271, 5.332
  multimedia, 1.121, 2.098, 2.145, 2.240, 4.235, 4.258, 4.267
  music, 1.139, 1.161, 1.181, 2.025, 2.066, 2.098, 2.154, 3.220, 4.173
    America, 1.160, 3.220, 3.238,
3.262, 4.239
    culture, role of, 2.098
    England, 3.220
    Germany, 3.220
    Japan, 1.161, 2.145, 3.220, 3.238, 3.260,
4.191, 4.199, 4.201, 4.239
American influences on, 3.260
band, 2.098
songs, 2.293
    piano, 1.161, 2.145, 4.138
mothers' attitudes towards, 1.160
  nationalism, 2.273
  off- campus training units, 4.143 
  patriotism, 2.202
  peer, 4.023
  philosophy, 2.245, 2.267, 2.300, 2.313
    cultural aspects, 2.245
  physics, 3.135, 5.210
  preschool, 1.028, 1.074, 1.076, 1.077, 1.113, 1.122,
    1.156, 1.157, 1.158, 1.165, 1.197, 5.230
    discipline, 1.076
  prefectural boards of, 3.236
  reasoning, 5.141
  reforms, 1.093, 2.007, 2.015, 2.055,
    2.064, 2.066, 2.120, 2.124, 2.256,
    2.309, 3.083, 4.148, 5.003, 5.007, 5.008,
    5.012, 5.016, 5.040, 5.041, 5.044,
    5.067, 5.073, 5.074, 5.087, 5.121,
    5.122, 5.125, 5.166, 5.167, 5.191,
    5.199, 5.202, 5.221, 5.222, 5.238, 5.256,
    5.257, 5.261, 5.264, 5.268, 5.270, 5.283,
    5.284, 5.288, 5.289, 5.315, 5.321, 5.331,
    5.340
British, 5.087
legal aspects of, 5.211
Occupation, American, 5.238, 5.341
United States, 5.003, 5.074, 5.315
  religion and, 1.017, 2.243
  religious, 2.289
  rote learning, 3.110, 4.063,
    4.119, 5.073, 5.190, 5.239, 5.272,
    5.349
  science, 3.095, 3.126, 3.134,
    3.135, 3.152, 3.153, 3.155, 4.015,
    4.130, 4.131, 4.136, 4.153,
    4.187, 4.211, 5.216, 5.295 
pre- college, 4.193  
textbooks,
America, 5.199
Japan, 5.199
  second language learning, 4.204
  secondary,
    Japan, 4.289
  sexuality, 2.001, 2.088, 2.139, 4.232
  social change, relationship to, 2.248 
  social expectations, 2.037
  social mobility and, 2.116
  social studies, 2.019
    American model, 2.019
    Japan,
kindergarten and nursery schools,
2.025 
  society and, 2.243, 2.244, 5.264
  sociology of,
    "educational credentialism" theses, 2.116
    "industrialism" theses, 2.116
    "new middle class" theses, 2.116
  special, 3.003, 3.153, 3.190, 4.160, 4.180
  standardized tests,
    Face Recognition, 4.112
    high Simultaneous- low Sequential
profile, 4.112
    K- ABC, 4.112
  state and, 1.017, 2.123
  teachers' manuals, 5.199
  technical and technology in, 4.144
    4.175, 4.186, 4.194, 4.282
  undergraduate, 2.199
    psychology, 2.199
Japan, 2.199
United States, 2.199
  United States, 4.248
  vocational, 1.200, 2.185, 3.120, 3.211,
    Japan, 2.062, 3.211, 4.037, 4.057,
4.113, 4.162, 4.167, 4.225
    Texas, 3.211
  workforce and, 2.235
Education for International
  Understanding, 3.010
Education for Japanese Expatriated
  And Repatriated Children, 3.010
Education mama (kyoiku mama), 1.046, 1.183,
  1.184, 2.061, 4.244, 5.320
Education Reform Act in Britain (ERA),
  5.124
Educational policies, 2.265
  Asia, 2.265
  cross- cultural perspectives, 2.265
  United States, 2.265
Educational Survey on Soldiers, 4.135
Effort, 1.022, 1.037, 1.075,
  1.097, 1.149, 1.207, 2.160, 2.239, 2.246,
  2.266, 2.287, 3.020, 3.117, 3.247, 3.296, 4.018,
  5.052
Ehime, Prefecture, 5.176
  textbooks

[ supplied Index ends here - tmciolek ]

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